Our Place in the Cosmos Our Place in the Cosmos Summary of Previous - - PDF document

Our Place in the Cosmos Our Place in the Cosmos and and Introduction to Introduction to Astrophysics Astrophysics

Lecture 4 Patterns in the Sky - Earth’s Motion about the Sun

Summary of Previous Lecture

• Night and day, and the apparent motion of the

Sun and stars are due to the Earth’s rotation

• Latitude may be determined from the altitude
• f the celestial poles
• Changing altitude of pole with latitude

provides estimate of Earth’s radius

• Earth’s rotation demonstrated directly by two
• bservable effects: Foucault pendulum and

Coriolis effect

Earth’s Orbit around Sun

• Earth orbits the Sun in same direction as its

spin (counterclockwise as viewed from above North Pole) taking 1 year for a complete orbit

• Responsible for seasons and changing patterns
• f stars through the year
• Overhead at midnight, one is looking away

from the Sun

• This direction changes throughout the year

and so we see different stars - six months from now we will be looking in the opposite direction at midnight

Summer Autumn Winter Spring 40 deg north

The Ecliptic

• The Sun traces out a great circle against the

background stars along a path known as the ecliptic

• The constellations along the ecliptic are the

signs of the zodiac

• Nothing significant about these constellations
• just random patterns of distant stars that

happen to lie near the plane of the Earth’s

• rbit about the Sun

apparent path of Sun September 1 Sun in Leo

Measuring Earth’s Motion

• Rain falling vertically will appear to be falling

at angle from a moving car

• By the time the raindrop has fallen from the

top of the window to the bottom, the car has moved forward, and so raindrop appears to be moving backwards

• In the same way, light from a distant star

appears to be coming from a slightly different direction due to Earth’s motion through space

• Over the course of a year stars appear to

trace out a loop - aberration of starlight

Aberration of Starlight

• Cannot be detected by human eye but easily

detectable with a telescope

• Aberration of starlight first detected in 1720s

by Samuel Molyneux and James Bradley

• They showed that Earth moves on roughly (but

not exactly) circular orbit about the Sun with average speed 29.8 km/s

• Since distance = speed time, one may

multiply this speed times the time for one

• rbit to find the circumference of the Earth’s
• rbit: 942 million km

Distance to the Sun

• For a nearly-circular orbit, radius is

circumference divided by 2: 150 million km

• This distance, the average distance between

the Earth and Sun is known as one astronomical unit (AU)

• Modern measurements use radar signals

bounced off Venus

• The AU provides the basis for the astronomical

distance scale

The Seasons

• The seasons are not a result of the

ellipticity of Earth’s orbit (it is too small)

• They result from the combined effects
• f
• Earth’s spin on its axis
• Earth’s orbit about the Sun
• Misalignment of the axes of these two

motions

The Seasons

• If Earth’s rotation axis were

perpendicular to the ecliptic plane, the Sun would always lie in the celestial equator, and above the horizon for exactly 12 hours per day, every day

• There would be no seasons
• In fact, rotation axis is tilted by 23.5°

from perpendicular, pointing in a fixed direction as Earth orbits the Sun

Animation

The Seasons

• Thus for parts of the year the North Pole is

tilted towards the Sun and hence the northern hemisphere has more than 12 hours of sunshine per day (northern summer), while it is winter in the south

• Six months later, the North Pole is tilted away

from the Sun and northern days are shorter than 12 hours (northern winter, southern summer)

• As well as longer days in summer, Sun is more

directly overhead and hence sunlight more intense

Equinoxes

• Equinoxes are the times when the Sun’s

apparent orbit crosses the celestial equator and the Earth’s rotation axis is perpendicular to the direction to the Sun

• Twice each year:
• Spring (or vernal) equinox around 21 March
• Autumn equinox around 23 September
• Equinox = “equal night” - day and night both

last for 12 hours everywhere

Solstices

• At the (northern) summer solstice (“Sun

standing still”), around 21 June, the Sun reaches it’s most northerly point, when North Pole points most directly towards Sun - midsummer’s day

• At winter solstice, around 22 December, North

Pole tipped most directly away from Sun - midwinter, the shortest day of the year

• Northern summer solstice is southern winter,

and vice versa

Anim

Land of the Midnight Sun

• Above the Arctic Circle (66.5 deg north) Sun is

circumpolar around midsummer - 24 hour daylight (“land of the midnight sun”)

• Same true below Antarctic Circle
• Temperatures remain cool as Sun is never very

high in the sky

• There are equally long periods in winter when

the Sun never rises

The Equator

• On the equator all stars, the Sun included, are

above the horizon 12 hours per day

• Days and nights are each 12 hours long

throughout the year

• Sun passes directly overhead on the equinoxes
• Sun is furthest from overhead at the summer

and winter solstices

• The equator thus experiences eight seasons a

year: two summers, two winters, two springs and two autumns, although no season is very different from another

The Tropics

• Between latitudes 23.5 deg south and north,

twice during the year, the Sun will be directly

• verhead at noon
• This band is known as the tropics and is

bounded by the tropic of Cancer to the north and the tropic of Capricorn to the south

• Where do these names come from? Summer

solstice is located in Taurus, winter in Sagittarius

apparent path of Sun Summer Sun in Taurus Winter Sun in Sagittarius

Precession of the Equinoxes

• Earth’s axis wobbles slightly (like a spinning

top) taking 26,000 years to complete one orbit

• f precession
• North celestial pole tracks out a large circle

amongst the stars

• Polaris is currently close to NCP, but it has

not always been!

• Celestial equator remains perpendicular to

rotation axis, so the locations where it crosses the ecliptic - the equinoxes - also change

Precession of the Equinoxes

• This is known as precession of the equinoxes
• Tropics so-named due to Sun’s location at

equinoxes in Ptolemey’s time, not today

• This shift of the seasons through the year

from century to century played havoc with construction of reliable calendars

• In 1752 England and colonies dropped 11 days

from calendar year to fall into line with rest

• f Europe. Mass rioting ensued from these 11

days being “stolen” from people’s lives

Leap years

• Modern calendar based on a tropical year of

365.242199 days, the time from one spring equinox to the next

• Leap years prevent extra fraction of a day causing

the seasons to “drift” through the year

• Leap years have 366 days (extra day is 29 Feb)

instead of 365

• Leap year every four years gives an average of

365.25 days/year, so not every 4th year is a leap year

• Century years apart from those divisible by 400 (eg.

2000) remain as 365 day years

Summary

• Our view of the stars changes during the year
• The ecliptic is the apparent yearly path of the

Sun against the stars

• From simple observations of the aberration of

starlight one may infer the orbit of the Earth about the Sun and the distance to the Sun

• The seasons are explained by the rotation of

the Earth, the orbit of the Earth about the Sun and the fact that the Earth’s rotation axis is at an angle relative to the orbital axis

Seminar Quiz Q1

• Draw a picture of the Earth showing the

location of an observer at our latitude and his or her horizon.

• Mark the direction of the north and

south celestial poles and the celestial equator.

• For how many hours per day is a star on

the celestial equator visible?

Seminar Quiz Q2

• A soldier fires a cannon directly at a

distant target toward the east and makes a perfect hit. She then fires a shot directly at another target to the north, but the shot lands west of this target.

• Was the soldier in Australia or Canada?
• Would she have fared better on the

equator?

Seminar Quiz Q3

• You are half way between the Carolinas

and Bermuda heading due east, and you know there is a hurricane nearby. A strong wing is blowing straight out of the south. Would you continue on to Bermuda or head back?

Seminar Quiz Q4

• In which direction does the Sun rise on

the morning of the spring equinox?

• In the summer, does the Sun rise further

north or further south?

• And in the winter?

Seminar Quiz Q5

• Suppose the Earth’s axis were tilted at

an angle of 35 instead of 23.5 degrees to its orbit.

• At what latitudes would the Arctic and

Antarctic circles and the Tropics be located?

• What effect would this have on our

seasons?