A Century of Remote Measurements of the Atmosphere Clive Rodgers - - PowerPoint PPT Presentation
Symons Gold Medal Symons Gold Medal Lecture 2019 Lecture 2019 A Century of Remote Measurements of the Atmosphere Clive Rodgers University of Oxford George James Symons Elected a fellow of the Society in 1856 at age 17 President 1880 and
Symons Gold Medal Lecture 2019
Clive Rodgers
University of Oxford
Elected a fellow of the Society in 1856 at age 17 President 1880 and 1900 Council member for 37 years Secretary for 24 years Founder of the British Rainfall Organisation and the Meteorological Magazine
James Glaisher and Henry Coxwell ballooning 5 Sep 1862
Teisserenc de Bort
1908
REMOTE SOUNDING What can you measure without going there? Globally?
1920 - Lindemann & Dobson Symons
Density from sondes Extrapolation assuming 220K
x Density at appearance
1938
Dobson’s Ozone Spectrometer
1924 - 1926
Paul Götz – The Umkehr Method
Götz found that by observing solar UV scattered from the zenith sky as the sun set, he could determine something about the vertical distribution of ozone.
1929
Hans Dütsch 1957
Developed a method to be used on a digital computer Linearise the model equations, solved for nine layers. Recompute with the full equations, and iterate.
From: Scientific Uses of Earth Satellites, Ed J. A. Van Allen Univerity of Michigan Press Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1956
“The emergent intensity is simply the Laplace Transform
considered as a function of
Jean King 1956
Thermal infrared emission
Proposed looking at CO2 in several spectral locations where there are different absorption coefficients
Lewis Kaplan 1959
Dave Wark, 1961 Simulated this idea, retrieved two layer temperatures and lapse rates from three radiances.
Giichi Yamamoto 1961
Nimbus 3 Two sounders - SIRS IRIS 1969
Nimbus B in test
Infra-Red Interferometer Spectrometer PI Rudolph Hanel
NASA Goddard
SIRS
Satellite Infra-Red Spectrometer 8 channel grating spectrometer
SIRS-B prototype, National Air & Space Museum
P.I. David Q Wark NOAA
Harold W. Yates , Space Technology and the Optical Sciences APPLIED OPTICS/ Vol. 21, No. 2 / 15 January 1982
Year Innovation Instrument Satellite 1969 Fourier Transform Spectrometer IRIS Nimbus 3 “ Grating Spectrometer SIRS 1970 Solar UV Scattering BUV Nimbus 4 “ Filter Radiometer SCR “ Gas Correlation SCR 1972 Off-Axis Scanning ITPR Nimbus 5 “ Microwave Radiometer NEMS “ First Operational Sounder VTPR NOAA-2 1975 Detector Cooling LRIR Nimbus 6 “ Limb View LRIR 1981 First Geostationary Sounder VAS GOES-4 1984 Solar Occultation SAGE II ERBS 1994 GPS Radio Occultation GPS/MET MicroLab-1 1994 Lidar LITE STS 2002 Stellar Occultation GOMOS Envisat
INNOVATIONS
Backscatter Ultraviolet Radiometer
Nimbus 4 1970 PI Don Heath NASA Goddard
Nadir viewing grating spectrometer measuring scattered solar UV at 12 wavelengths to obtain the vertical profile of ozone
Had over 20 flights: –1975 Atmosphere Explorer –1978 SBUV Nimbus 7 –SSBUV Shuttle flights –NOAA/POES series ongoing
SBUV/2 Layer Ozone (Southern Hemisphere) 5 Dec 2019
Filter Radiometers
John Houghton Oxford
(Church Times)
With a new idea - gas correlation Match the spectral response of the radiometer to the spectrum of CO2
Desmond Smith Reading/Heriot Watt
Nimbus 4 Selective Chopper Radiometer
Nimbus 4 1970
1990
N4 SCR 1970 Move mirror N5 SCR 1972 Move gas cells N6 PMR 1975 modulate gas pressure
Weighting functions for three nadir sounding instruments
From Nimbus 4 SCR
Southern Hemisphere warming Sept 5 1970 10-1 mb thickness Nimbus 4 SCR
Infrared Temperature Profile Radiometer
Nimbus 5 1972
FOV 32 km, 14 views cross track 7 spectral channels: 19.7, 14.96, 14.5, 14.0, 13.4, 11.1, 3.7 µm
PI Bill Smith
NOAA HIRS Nimbus 6 1975 VTPR NOAA 2-5 1973-79
Was an operational follow on to ITPR Also a follow on to ITPR: 17 spectral channels Field of view: 0.04 rad, 25 km at nadir, sidescan to 42 fov’s
Cross-track Scanning
Followed by:
500 mb Temperature 1200Z 6 March 1973 Intense low, North Pacific NMC analysis –––––– ITPR suggested adjustment - - - -
VTPR (NOAA 2-5) Scan Pattern HIRS Nimbus 6 1975 VTPR NOAA 2-5 1973-79
With 23 FOV’s cross track was an operational follow on to ITPR Also a follow on to ITPR: 17 spectral channels Field of view: 0.04 rad, 25 km at nadir, sidescan to 42 fov’s
Followed by:
Nimbus E Microwave Spectrometer NEMS
Nimbus 5 1972
PI Dave Staelin MIT
Straightforward microwave receiver pointing downwards FOV ~190 km 3 channels in the O2 band near 5mm for temperature 2 channels for water Clouds are almost transparent in the microwave
Waters et al, J Atmos Sci, 32 p1953
TOVS Scan Pattern HIRS and MSU on NOAA series
PI John Gille NCAR
Limb Radiance Inversion Radiometer
Nimbus 6 1975
New ideas:
Measuring Temperature, Ozone, Water
Comparison with radiosonde & rocketsonde
(a) Temperature with contour increment of 5 K, (b) ascending (daytime) ozone with contour increment of 0.5 ppmv. Zonal mean cross section of LIMS V6 data for May 6, 1979.
Subsequent limb sounders On Nimbus 7: LIMS - update of LRIR SAMS - a limb sounding version of SCR/PMR On UARS: CLAES, ISAMS, MLS, HALOE, HRDI, WINDII On Envisat: MIPAS, SCIAMACHY
UARS Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite 12 Sept 1991 HALOE - solar occultation, gas correlation radiometer CLAES - high spectral resolution limb sounding tuneable etalon WINDII - Limb interferometer measuring Doppler shift of airglow lines for mesosphere and thermosphere winds ISAMS - Improved SAMS MLS - Microwave Limb Sounder HRDI - High Resolution Doppler Imager
June 15 1991 We had not planned for this in the design of ISAMS… Even so, our window channel was very useful.
Oct 1978 Stratospheric Aerosol Measurement II (SAM II) Nimbus 7 Feb 1979 Stratospheric Aerosol and Gas Experiment (SAGE) on AEM-B
Solar Occultation
Pat McCormick
NASA Langley
Solar Occultation 1985 Atmospheric Trace Molecule Spectroscopy Experiment (ATMOS) on Spacelab and STS 1992-4 2003 ACE - Atmospheric Chemistry Experiment Fourier Transform Spectrometer Polar orbiter 2002 SCIAMACHY - Envisat Occultation & Scattering 1991 Halogen Occultation Experiment (HALOE) on UARS
HF, HCl, CH4, NO, H2O, O3, NO2 and pressure
GPS/MET flown on a tiny satellite MicroLab-1 1995 Rick Anthes NCAR
Radio Occultation
daily geographic coverage provided by COSMIC-2. The locations of radio
are in red. COSMIC-1 2016 COSMIC-2a 2019 Cluster
Stellar Occultation
Global Ozone Monitoring by Occultation of Stars (GOMOS) on Envisat 2002
Spatio-temporal observations of the tertiary
Sofieva V, Kyrölä E, Verronen P et al. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics (2009) 9(13) 4439-4445
As Dütsch had found with ozone in 1957, the
easy It usually turned out to be very ill-conditioned
Book: Introduction to the mathematics of inversion in remote sensing and indirect measurements Elsevier Science & Technology, 1977
Sean Twomey
US Weather Bureau
Jointly minimised: The fit of the solution to the measurements, plus some smoothness criterion, e.g. squared second differences of the profile,
Classic Paper: On the Numerical Solution of Fredholm Integral Equations of the First Kind by the Inversion of the Linear System Produced by Quadrature Journal of the ACM Volume 10 Issue 1, Jan. 1963 pp 97-101
Carl Mateer
“There are at most four pieces of information about the vertical distribution to be obtained”
Empirical orthogonal functions - Lorenz 1956
(Factor Analysis - Spearman 1904, Singular Vector Decomposition)
square roots 1 0.88 2 0.40 3 0.17 4 0.13 5 0.08
Eigenvalues of a sample of about 100 measurements
George Backus and Freeman Gilbert
Scripps Institute of Oceanography
Uniqueness in the Inversion of Inaccurate Gross Earth Data Phil Trans 266 p 123-192 March 1970 The Averaging Kernel describes how the retrieval is related to the actual profile
Miscellaneous approaches to finding a solution
e.g.
Optimal Estimation: Combining the measured quantities with a properly characterised prior estimate in a statistically optimal way, e.g. using Bayes Theorem Smoothest ‘exact’ linear solution - turns out to be a linear combination of weighting functions Ad Hoc relaxation methods, e.g. Chahine 1968 Onion Peeling - for limb sounding, work down from the top. Russell & Drayson 1972 Direct multiple regression: using a set of computed radiances (or a sample of coincident direct measurements to get coefficients). Rodgers 1966, Smith, Woolf & Jacob 1970 Review: Rodgers (1976) Retrieval of Atmospheric Temperature and Composition from Remote Measurements of Thermal Radiation Rev Geophys and Space Phys 14 p609
Rod Jones
We can divide the problem into : Finding a profile or set of profiles that fit the measurements (a) exactly or (b) within the noise Characterising the set of profiles that fit the measurements within the noise i.e. a proper error analysis, identifying different types of errors Understanding how the solution relates to the true profile
Assimilation of Remote Measurements
1970s: Assimilating retrievals as if they were radiosondes Not much effect in northern hemisphere, greater improvements in southern hemisphere 1990s: The move to assimilating radiances has eliminated much of the misuse of satellite information!
Jonathan Robert Eyre, Stephen J. English, Mary Forsythe, QJRMetS, Sept 2019 Assimilation of satellite data in numerical weather prediction. Part I: The early years
End
Year of launch Satellite Grating Spectrometer FT Interferometer Filter Radiometer Microwave Other 1969 Nimbus 3 SIRS IRIS 1970 Nimbus 4 SIRS, BUV IRIS SCR* 1972 Nimbus 5 ITPR, SCR/2* NEMS 1972-5 NOAA 2-5 series VTPR 1975 Nimbus 6 HIRS, LRIR†, PMR* SCAMS 1978 Nimbus 7 SBUV LIMS†, SAMS*†, 1978 Tiros-N HIRS, SSU* MSU 1978-81 NOAA 6,7 HIRS, SSU* MSU 1983-94 NOAA 8-14 SBUV/2 HIRS/2, SSU* 1991 UARS ISAMS*†, MLS CLAES, HALOE*, WINDII 1992-4 STS/Atlas1-3 ATMOS 1995 Orbview-1 GPS/MET 1998-09 NOAA 15-17 HIRS/3 AMSU 1999 Terra (EOS) MOPITT* 2002 Aqua (EOS) AIRS AMSU-A 2004 Aura (EOS) TES HIRDLS† MLS† OMI 2006 METOP-A IASI HIRS/4 AMSU-A GOME/2, GRAS 2012 METOP-B IASI HIRS/4 AMSU-A GOME/2, GRAS 2018 METOP-C IASI AMSU-A GOME/2, GRAS
* gas correlation
†Limb view
Thanks to Alyn Lambert & Don Grainger