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  1. ■♥tr♦❞✉❝t✐♦♥ t♦ Pr♦♣♦s✐t✐♦♥❛❧ ❉②♥❛♠✐❝ ▲♦❣✐❝ ❛♥❞ ●❛♠❡ ▲♦❣✐❝ ❊r✐❝ P❛❝✉✐t ■▲▲❈✱ ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t② ♦❢ ❆♠st❡r❞❛♠ st❛❢❢✳s❝✐❡♥❝❡✳✉✈❛✳♥❧✴ ∼ ❡♣❛❝✉✐t ❡♣❛❝✉✐t❅s❝✐❡♥❝❡✳✉✈❛✳♥❧ ◆♦✈❡♠❜❡r ✷✼✱ ✷✵✵✻ ■♥tr♦❞✉❝t✐♦♥ t♦ ▲♦❣✐❝ ✐♥ ❈♦♠♣✉t❡r ❙❝✐❡♥❝❡

  2. ❖✈❡r✈✐❡✇ • Pr♦✈✐♥❣ ❈♦rr❡❝t♥❡ss ♦❢ Pr♦❣r❛♠s✿ ❋r♦♠ ❍♦❛r❡ ▲♦❣✐❝ t♦ PDL • ■♥tr♦❞✉❝t✐♦♥ t♦ Pr♦♣♦s✐t✐♦♥❛❧ ❉②♥❛♠✐❝ ▲♦❣✐❝ ✭ PDL ✮ • ❋r♦♠ PDL t♦ ●❛♠❡ ▲♦❣✐❝ • ❙❡♠❛♥t✐❝s ❢♦r ●❛♠❡ ▲♦❣✐❝ • ❊①❛♠♣❧❡✿ ❇❛♥❛❝❤✲❑♥❛st❡r ❈❛❦❡ ❈✉tt✐♥❣ Pr♦❝❡❞✉r❡

  3. ❲❤❛t ✐s ❛ Pr♦❣r❛♠ ❄ ❆ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡r ♣r♦❣r❛♠ ✐s ❛ ❝♦❧❧❡❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ✐♥str✉❝t✐♦♥s t❤❛t ❞❡s❝r✐❜❡ ❛ t❛s❦✱ ♦r s❡t ♦❢ t❛s❦s✱ t♦ ❜❡ ❝❛rr✐❡❞ ♦✉t ❜② ❛ ❝♦♠♣✉t❡r✳ ✭❲✐❦❡♣❡❞✐❛✮ ❆ ♣r♦❣r❛♠ ✐s ❛ r❡❝✐♣❡ ✇r✐tt❡♥ ✐♥ ❛ ❢♦r♠❛❧ ❧❛♥❣✉❛❣❡ ❢♦r ❝♦♠♣✉t✐♥❣ ❞❡s✐r❡❞ ♦✉t♣✉t ❞❛t❛ ❢r♦♠ ❣✐✈❡♥ ✐♥♣✉t ❞❛t❛✳ ✭❍❛r❡❧✱ ❑♦③❡♥ ❛♥❞ ❚✐✉r②♥✮

  4. ❊①❛♠♣❧❡✿ ❊✉❝❧✐❞✬s ❆❧❣♦r✐t❤♠ x := u ; y := v ; ✇❤✐❧❡ x � = y ❞♦ ✐❢ x < y t❤❡♥ y := y − x ; ❡❧s❡ x := x − y ; ■♥♣✉t✿ x, y ∈ N ❖✉t♣✉t✿ gcd ( x, y )

  5. ❲❤❡♥ ✐s ❛ Pr♦❣r❛♠ ❈♦rr❡❝t ❄ ❋♦r♠❛❧ ❙♣❡❝✐✜❝❛t✐♦♥ ✉s❡ ♥♦t❛t✐♦♥s ❞❡r✐✈❡❞ ❢r♦♠ ❢♦r♠❛❧ ❧♦❣✐❝ t♦ ❞❡s❝r✐❜❡ • ❛ss✉♠♣t✐♦♥s ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ❡♥✈✐r♦♥♠❡♥t ✐♥ ✇❤✐❝❤ ❛ ♣r♦❣r❛♠ ✇✐❧❧ ♦♣❡r❛t❡ • r❡q✉✐r❡♠❡♥ts ❛ ♣r♦❣r❛♠ ✐s t♦ ❛❝❤✐❡✈❡ • ❤♦✇ t♦ ❞❡s✐❣♥ t❤❡ ♣r♦❣r❛♠ t♦ ❛❝❤✐❡✈❡ t❤❡s❡ ❣♦❛❧s

  6. ❲❤❡♥ ✐s ❛ Pr♦❣r❛♠ ❈♦rr❡❝t ❄ ❋♦r♠❛❧ ❱❡r✐✜❝❛t✐♦♥ ✉s❡ ♠❡t❤♦❞s ♦❢ ❢♦r♠❛❧ ❧♦❣✐❝ t♦ • ✈❛❧✐❞❛t❡ s♣❡❝✐✜❝❛t✐♦♥s ❜② ❝❤❡❝❦✐♥❣ ❝♦♥s✐st❡♥❝② ♦r ♣♦s✐♥❣ ❝❤❛❧❧❡♥❣❡s • ♣r♦✈❡ t❤❛t ❛ ♣r♦❣r❛♠ s❛t✐s✜❡s t❤❡ s♣❡❝✐✜❝❛t✐♦♥ ✉♥❞❡r ❣✐✈❡♥ ❛ss✉♠♣t✐♦♥s✱ ♦r ♣r♦✈❡ t❤❛t ❛ ♠♦r❡ ❞❡t❛✐❧❡❞ ♣r♦❣r❛♠ ✐♠♣❧❡♠❡♥ts ❛ ♠♦r❡ ❛❜str❛❝t ♦♥❡✳

  7. ❊①♦❣❡♥♦✉s ❛♥❞ ❊♥❞♦❣❡♥♦✉s Pr♦❣r❛♠ ▲♦❣✐❝s ❚✇♦ ♠❛✐♥ ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤❡s t♦ t❤❡ ✭♠♦❞❛❧✮ ❧♦❣✐❝ ♦❢ ♣r♦❣r❛♠s✿ ❊①♦❣❡♥♦✉s ✿ ♣r♦❣r❛♠s ❛r❡ ❡①♣❧✐❝✐t ✐♥ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠❛❧ ❧❛♥❣✉❛❣❡✳ ❊①❛♠♣❧❡s✿ ❍♦❛r❡ ▲♦❣✐❝✱ Pr♦♣♦s✐t✐♦♥❛❧ ❉②♥❛♠✐❝ ▲♦❣✐❝ ✭❞✐s❝✉ss❡❞ t♦❞❛②✮✳ ❊♥❞♦❣❡♥♦✉s ✿ ❛ ♣r♦❣r❛♠ ✐s ✜①❡❞ ❛♥❞ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r❡❞ ♣❛rt ♦❢ t❤❡ str✉❝t✉r❡ ♦✈❡r ✇❤✐❝❤ ❛ ♣r♦❣r❛♠ ✐s ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❡❞✳ ❊①❛♠♣❧❡s✿ ▲✐♥❡❛r ❛♥❞ ❇r❛♥❝❤✐♥❣ ❚❡♠♣♦r❛❧ ▲♦❣✐❝s ✭♥♦t ❞✐s❝✉ss❡❞ t♦❞❛②✮✳

  8. ❈♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥❛❧ ✈s✳ ❇❡❤❛✈✐♦r❛❧ ❙tr✉❝t✉r❡s x = 0 q 0 q 0 x = 0 x = 0 q 0 q 1 x = 1 q 0 q 0 q 1 x = 1 x = 1 x = 1 x = 0 x = 0 q 0 q 0 q 1 q 0 q 1 q 0 q 0 q 1 q 1 q 0 q 0 q 0 . . . . . .

  9. ❈♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥❛❧ ✈s✳ ❇❡❤❛✈✐♦r❛❧ ❙tr✉❝t✉r❡s x = 0 q 0 q 0 x = 0 q 0 q 1 x = 1 x = 0 q 0 q 0 q 1 x = 1 x = 1 x = 1 x = 0 x = 0 q 0 q 0 q 1 q 0 q 1 q 0 q 0 q 0 q 0 q 0 q 1 q 1 . . . . . . ∃ ♦ P x =1

  10. ❈♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥❛❧ ✈s✳ ❇❡❤❛✈✐♦r❛❧ ❙tr✉❝t✉r❡s x = 0 q 0 q 0 x = 0 q 0 q 1 x = 1 x = 0 q 0 q 0 q 1 x = 1 x = 1 x = 1 x = 0 x = 0 q 0 q 0 q 1 q 0 q 1 q 0 q 0 q 0 q 0 q 0 q 1 q 1 . . . . . . ¬∀ ♦ P x =1

  11. ▼♦r❡ ♦♥ ❚❡♠♣♦r❛❧ ▲♦❣✐❝ • ▲✐♥❡❛r ❚✐♠❡ ❚❡♠♣♦r❛❧ ▲♦❣✐❝ ✿ ❘❡❛s♦♥✐♥❣ ❛❜♦✉t ❝♦♠♣✉t❛t✐♦♥ ♣❛t❤s✿ ♦ φ ✿ φ ✐s tr✉❡ s♦♠❡ t✐♠❡ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❢✉t✉r❡✳ ❆✳ P♥✉❡❧❧✐✳ ❆ ❚❡♠♣♦r❛❧ ▲♦❣✐❝ ♦❢ Pr♦❣r❛♠s ✳ ✐♥ Pr♦❝✳ ✶✽t❤ ■❊❊❊ ❙②♠♣♦s✐✉♠ ♦♥ ❋♦✉♥❞❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ ❈♦♠♣✉t❡r ❙❝✐❡♥❝❡ ✭✶✾✼✼✮✳ • ❇r❛♥❝❤✐♥❣ ❚✐♠❡ ❚❡♠♣♦r❛❧ ▲♦❣✐❝ ✿ ❆❧❧♦✇s q✉❛♥t✐✜❝❛t✐♦♥ ♦✈❡r ♣❛t❤s✿ ∃ ♦ φ ✿ t❤❡r❡ ✐s ❛ ♣❛t❤ ✐♥ ✇❤✐❝❤ φ ✐s ❡✈❡♥t✉❛❧❧② tr✉❡✳ ❊✳ ▼✳ ❈❧❛r❦❡ ❛♥❞ ❊✳ ❆✳ ❊♠❡rs♦♥✳ ❉❡s✐❣♥ ❛♥❞ ❙②♥t❤❡s✐s ♦❢ ❙②♥❝❤r♦♥✐③❛t✐♦♥ ❙❦❡❧❡t♦♥s ✉s✐♥❣ ❇r❛♥❝❤✐♥❣✲t✐♠❡ ❚❡♠♣r♦❛❧✲❧♦❣✐❝ ❙♣❡❝✐✜❝❛t✐♦♥s ✳ ■♥ Pr♦❝❡❡❞✐♥❣s ❲♦r❦s❤♦♣ ♦♥ ▲♦❣✐❝ ♦❢ Pr♦❣r❛♠s ✱ ▲◆❈❙ ✭✶✾✽✶✮✳

  12. ❇❛❝❦❣r♦✉♥❞✿ ❍♦❛r❡ ▲♦❣✐❝

  13. ❇❛❝❦❣r♦✉♥❞✿ ❍♦❛r❡ ▲♦❣✐❝ ▼♦t✐✈❛t✐♦♥✿ ❋♦r♠❛❧❧② ✈❡r✐❢② t❤❡ ✏❝♦rr❡❝t♥❡ss✑ ♦❢ ❛ ♣r♦❣r❛♠ ✈✐❛ ♣❛rt✐❛❧ ❝♦rr❡❝t♥❡ss ❛ss❡rt✐♦♥s ✿ { φ } α { ψ }

  14. ❇❛❝❦❣r♦✉♥❞✿ ❍♦❛r❡ ▲♦❣✐❝ ▼♦t✐✈❛t✐♦♥✿ ❋♦r♠❛❧❧② ✈❡r✐❢② t❤❡ ✏❝♦rr❡❝t♥❡ss✑ ♦❢ ❛ ♣r♦❣r❛♠ ✈✐❛ ♣❛rt✐❛❧ ❝♦rr❡❝t♥❡ss ❛ss❡rt✐♦♥s ✿ { φ } α { ψ } ■♥t❡♥❞❡❞ ■♥t❡r♣r❡t❛t✐♦♥✿ ■❢ t❤❡ ♣r♦❣r❛♠ α ❜❡❣✐♥s ✐♥ ❛ st❛t❡ ✐♥ ✇❤✐❝❤ φ ✐s tr✉❡✱ t❤❡♥ ❛❢t❡r α t❡r♠✐♥❛t❡s ✭✦✮✱ ψ ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡ tr✉❡✳

  15. ❇❛❝❦❣r♦✉♥❞✿ ❍♦❛r❡ ▲♦❣✐❝ ▼♦t✐✈❛t✐♦♥✿ ❋♦r♠❛❧❧② ✈❡r✐❢② t❤❡ ✏❝♦rr❡❝t♥❡ss✑ ♦❢ ❛ ♣r♦❣r❛♠ ✈✐❛ ♣❛rt✐❛❧ ❝♦rr❡❝t♥❡ss ❛ss❡rt✐♦♥s ✿ { φ } α { ψ } ■♥t❡♥❞❡❞ ■♥t❡r♣r❡t❛t✐♦♥✿ ■❢ t❤❡ ♣r♦❣r❛♠ α ❜❡❣✐♥s ✐♥ ❛ st❛t❡ ✐♥ ✇❤✐❝❤ φ ✐s tr✉❡✱ t❤❡♥ ❛❢t❡r α t❡r♠✐♥❛t❡s ✭✦✮✱ ψ ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡ tr✉❡✳ ❈✳ ❆✳ ❘✳ ❍♦❛r❡✳ ❆♥ ❆①✐♦♠❛t✐❝ ❇❛s✐s ❢♦r ❈♦♠♣✉t❡r Pr♦❣r❛♠♠✐♥❣✳ ✳ ❈♦♠♠✳ ❆ss♦❝✳ ❈♦♠♣✉t✳ ▼❛❝❤✳ ✶✾✻✾✳

  16. ❇❛❝❦❣r♦✉♥❞✿ ❍♦❛r❡ ▲♦❣✐❝ ▼❛✐♥ ❘✉❧❡s✿

  17. ❇❛❝❦❣r♦✉♥❞✿ ❍♦❛r❡ ▲♦❣✐❝ ▼❛✐♥ ❘✉❧❡s✿ ❆ss✐❣♥♠❡♥t ❘✉❧❡✿ { φ [ x/e ] } x := e { φ }

  18. ❇❛❝❦❣r♦✉♥❞✿ ❍♦❛r❡ ▲♦❣✐❝ ▼❛✐♥ ❘✉❧❡s✿ ❆ss✐❣♥♠❡♥t ❘✉❧❡✿ { φ [ x/e ] } x := e { φ } { φ } α { σ } { σ } β { ψ } ❈♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ❘✉❧❡✿ { φ } α ; β { ψ }

  19. ❇❛❝❦❣r♦✉♥❞✿ ❍♦❛r❡ ▲♦❣✐❝ ▼❛✐♥ ❘✉❧❡s✿ ❆ss✐❣♥♠❡♥t ❘✉❧❡✿ { φ [ x/e ] } x := e { φ } { φ } α { σ } { σ } β { ψ } ❈♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ❘✉❧❡✿ { φ } α ; β { ψ } { φ ∧ σ } α { ψ } { φ ∧ ¬ σ } β { ψ } ❈♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥❛❧ ❘✉❧❡✿ { φ } if σ then α else β { ψ }

  20. ❇❛❝❦❣r♦✉♥❞✿ ❍♦❛r❡ ▲♦❣✐❝ ▼❛✐♥ ❘✉❧❡s✿ ❆ss✐❣♥♠❡♥t ❘✉❧❡✿ { φ [ x/e ] } x := e { φ } { φ } α { σ } { σ } β { ψ } ❈♦♠♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ❘✉❧❡✿ { φ } α ; β { ψ } { φ ∧ σ } α { ψ } { φ ∧ ¬ σ } β { ψ } ❈♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥❛❧ ❘✉❧❡✿ { φ } if σ then α else β { ψ } { φ ∧ σ } α { φ } ❲❤✐❧❡ ❘✉❧❡✿ { φ } while σ do α { φ ∧ ¬ σ }

  21. ❊①❛♠♣❧❡✿ ❊✉❝❧✐❞✬s ❆❧❣♦r✐t❤♠ x := u ; y := v ; ✇❤✐❧❡ x � = y ❞♦ ✐❢ x < y t❤❡♥ y := y − x ; ❡❧s❡ x := x − y ; ▲❡t φ := gcd( x, y ) = gcd( u, v )

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