The origin of language The origin of language in eighteenth-century - - PowerPoint PPT Presentation

The origin of language The origin of language in eighteenth-century in eighteenth-century philosophy philosophy

Sylvain Sylvain Auroux Auroux Laboratoire Laboratoire d d’ ’histoire histoire des des théories théories linguistiques linguistiques Université Paris 7 - CNRS Université Paris 7 - CNRS Montréal, Montréal, Juin Juin 2010 2010

1- The « 1- The « turning point turning point» »

• In the Western World, the origin of language and of

In the Western World, the origin of language and of languages has been addressed in one way or the other languages has been addressed in one way or the other in multiple texts since the Antiquity. in multiple texts since the Antiquity.

• In the Christian Western World, the representations

In the Christian Western World, the representations and the discussions have been fed by data from the and the discussions have been fed by data from the biblical myth: the imposition of language by Adam and biblical myth: the imposition of language by Adam and the parallel genealogy of people and languages since the parallel genealogy of people and languages since the deluge. the deluge.

• In this view, the

In this view, the XVIIIth XVIIIth century marks a turning point in century marks a turning point in

• ur intellectual tradition: this issue has turned into an
• ur intellectual tradition: this issue has turned into an

issue of issue of “ “natural and/or speculative philosophy natural and/or speculative philosophy” ”, which , which avoids implying religion (secularisation) in most cases. avoids implying religion (secularisation) in most cases.

2.1 2.1 – – The philosophical The philosophical bases of change bases of change

• A

A – – The The Cartesianism Cartesianism and natural philosophies and natural philosophies which followed which followed turned man into turned man into “ “natural natural” ” data, data, an individual subject fitted with universal an individual subject fitted with universal properties properties ( (intellectual intellectual – – today one would say today one would say cognitive cognitive – – and affective and affective capacities capacities), ), even if even if their their list has remained quite list has remained quite a a disputed disputed philosophical philosophical problem (especially problem (especially between between rationalists rationalists and and empiricists empiricists who do not agree who do not agree

• n the
• n the

primitive primitive elementary elementary properties). properties).

2.2 2.2 – – The philosophical The philosophical bases of change bases of change

• B

B – – The contacts - since the major discoveries at the The contacts - since the major discoveries at the end of the end of the XVth XVth century and during the century and during the XVIth XVIth century century – – with other civilisations have led to recognise (more or with other civilisations have led to recognise (more or less strongly) less strongly) diversity

• diversity. From then on, for most authors,

. From then on, for most authors, there has been a schism between there has been a schism between human human nature nature (minimal universal and diversely defined essence) and (minimal universal and diversely defined essence) and the different conditions of humanity the different conditions of humanity, recognised by their , recognised by their institutions (family, society, commerce, etc.). The latter institutions (family, society, commerce, etc.). The latter ( (“ “cultural cultural” ” data) have not remained in their initial nature data) have not remained in their initial nature (natural condition), they have their own origin and their (natural condition), they have their own origin and their

• wn history (in the modern meaning of the term).
• wn history (in the modern meaning of the term).

3.1 3.1 – – Language and origin Language and origin

• For most thinkers languages and language are

For most thinkers languages and language are part of culture, i.e. they have an part of culture, i.e. they have an origin

• rigin

and a and a history

• history. The former must hence be subject to

. The former must hence be subject to

• researches. Most major thinkers will focus on
• researches. Most major thinkers will focus on

that topic. In 1769, the Berlin Academy of that topic. In 1769, the Berlin Academy of Sciences (chaired by Frenchman Sciences (chaired by Frenchman Maupertuis Maupertuis) ) put that question to the fellows, thereby put that question to the fellows, thereby

• fficialising a debate initiated some twenty
• fficialising a debate initiated some twenty

years earlier: years earlier:

3.2 3.2 – – Language and origin Language and origin

• “

“Supposing that men are left to their Supposing that men are left to their natural faculties, are they able to invent natural faculties, are they able to invent language? And how will they reach such language? And how will they reach such invention? The hypothesis demanded invention? The hypothesis demanded must explain the matter clearly and meet must explain the matter clearly and meet all the difficulties all the difficulties” ”. .

4 4 – – What should be meant What should be meant by by “ “origin

• rigin”

” of language

• f language
• A

A – – The beginning or the first occurrence of a The beginning or the first occurrence of a set of currently observable and distinctly listed set of currently observable and distinctly listed facts: the origin of French, the origin of the facts: the origin of French, the origin of the language of Tahiti ( language of Tahiti (origin

• rigin
• f such or such
• f such or such a

a language language). ).

• B

B – – The beginning or the first occurrence of the The beginning or the first occurrence of the complete order of the facts regarding A ( complete order of the facts regarding A (origin

• rigin
• f language
• f language)

). .

5 5 – – Adjoining questions Adjoining questions

• for A: what is French?, etc.
• for A: what is French?, etc.

; between L1 and ; between L1 and L2, which is the oldest? which language was L2, which is the oldest? which language was the first in humanity? the first in humanity?

• for B: what is human language? In other
• for B: what is human language? In other

words: research on the origin of language = words: research on the origin of language = research on the essence (the defining research on the essence (the defining properties) of human language; where is the properties) of human language; where is the difference between human language and difference between human language and animal language? animal language?

6 6 – – The two models The two models

• Type-A as well as type-B questions are

Type-A as well as type-B questions are influenced to a vast extent by the influenced to a vast extent by the breakthroughs in the knowledge of world breakthroughs in the knowledge of world languages, which French historians of languages, which French historians of linguistics designate as linguistics designate as “ “grammatisation grammatisation” ”

• process. Nevertheless, two research models
• process. Nevertheless, two research models

may be differentiated abstractly: may be differentiated abstractly:

• I

I – – Abstract Abstract

• r «
• r «

speculative speculative » » model. model. II II – – Positive or « Positive or « historical historical » » model. model.

7 7 – – The speculative model The speculative model (1) (1)

• “

“First of all, let us rule out all facts First of all, let us rule out all facts” ”, , Rousseau, Rousseau, Discourse of the origin of Discourse of the origin of equality. equality.

• “

“When I am talking of a first language, I When I am talking of a first language, I do not claim to establish that men do not claim to establish that men created it, I only think that they might created it, I only think that they might have created it", have created it", Condillac Condillac, , Grammar Grammar, I.II. , I.II.

8.1 8.1 – – The speculative The speculative model (2) model (2)

• The aim is to establish a scenario from

The aim is to establish a scenario from minimum hypotheses: minimum hypotheses:

• in natural condition (without society) men

in natural condition (without society) men have no language available as we mean have no language available as we mean it, they must create it; it, they must create it;

8.2 8.2 – – The speculative The speculative model (2) model (2)

• as subjects (individuals) only a number of

as subjects (individuals) only a number of properties are available; these properties are properties are available; these properties are as follows: i) intellectual faculties: reflection or as follows: i) intellectual faculties: reflection or circumspection ( circumspection (Besonnenheit Besonnenheit, in Herder), , in Herder), possibly reason ( possibly reason (Maupertuis Maupertuis) ) ; and/or ii) more ; and/or ii) more sensitive faculties: need ( sensitive faculties: need (Condillac Condillac), sociability ), sociability instinct or mercy for Rousseau, imitation instinct or mercy for Rousseau, imitation capacity; and/or physical properties: ability to capacity; and/or physical properties: ability to produce certain sounds according to certain produce certain sounds according to certain motivations. motivations.

8.3 8.3 – – The speculative The speculative model (2) model (2)

• under certain circumstances, men (more

under certain circumstances, men (more rarely a man on his own as in rarely a man on his own as in Maupertuis Maupertuis) create the first language and ) create the first language and make it evolve up to the current make it evolve up to the current languages. languages.

9.1 - The main authors of 9.1 - The main authors of speculative models speculative models

• The main texts on the origin of languages can

The main texts on the origin of languages can be found in the empiricist philosophers be found in the empiricist philosophers handling the origin of knowledge (Hobbes, handling the origin of knowledge (Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau) or in grammars. The Locke, Rousseau) or in grammars. The question is tackled by those interested in the question is tackled by those interested in the relation between thoughts and languages relation between thoughts and languages (another question of the Berlin Academy) , as (another question of the Berlin Academy) , as Michaelis Michaelis or

• r Süssmilch

Süssmilch. Numerous . Numerous ad hoc ad hoc treatises are also available. treatises are also available.

9.2 -

• T

The m main a authors o

• f

9.2 -

• T

The m main a authors o

• f

speculative m models speculative m models

• Maupertuis

Maupertuis, 1748, , 1748, Réflexions Réflexions philosophiques philosophiques sur sur l l’ ’origine

• rigine des

des langues langues et la signification des et la signification des mots mots ( (Philosophical Philosophical reflections reflections

• n
• n

the origin the origin

• f
• f

languages languages and the and the meaning meaning of

• f words

words). ).

• Turgot

Turgot, 1750, , 1750, Remarques Remarques critiques critiques sur sur les les Réflexions Réflexions philosophiques philosophiques sur sur l l’ ’origine

• rigine des

des langues langues et la signification des et la signification des mots mots (Critical remarks on Philosophical (Critical remarks on Philosophical reflections reflections

• n
• n

the origin the origin

• f
• f

languages languages and the and the meaning meaning of

• f words

words). ).

• Formey

Formey, 1762, , 1762, Réunion Réunion des des principaux principaux moyens moyens employés employés pour pour découvrir découvrir l l’ ’origine

• rigine du

du langage langage, des , des idées idées et des et des connaissances connaissances humaines humaines ( (Gathering the main means used to discover Gathering the main means used to discover the origin the origin

• f language, ideas and human knowledge).
• f language, ideas and human knowledge).
• Herder

Herder, 1770, , 1770, Abhandlung Abhandlung über über den den Ursprung Ursprung der der Sprache Sprache ( (Treatise on the origin of language Treatise on the origin of language). ).

9.3 - The main authors of 9.3 - The main authors of speculative models speculative models

• Rousseau,

Rousseau, 1782, 1782, Essais Essais sur sur l l’ ’origine

• rigine des

des langues langues – – Essays on the origin of languages Essays on the origin of languages (first publication of a (first publication of a text, drafted when he wrote the text, drafted when he wrote the Essay of the Origin of Essay of the Origin of Inequality Inequality). ).

• A. Smith
• A. Smith, 1784,

, 1784, Considérations Considérations sur sur la première la première formation du formation du langage langage et et sur sur le le génie génie divers des divers des langues langues composées composées et primitives et primitives, , Encyclopédie Encyclopédie Méthodique Méthodique, (C , (Considerations on the first formation of

• nsiderations on the first formation of

language and the various genius of compounded and language and the various genius of compounded and primitive languages, primitive languages, Methodic Methodic Encyclopaedia), Encyclopaedia), éd éd. . Panckoucke Panckoucke, , Grammaire Grammaire et et Littérature Littérature (Grammar (Grammar and and Literature) Literature) t. 2.

• t. 2.

10 10 – – An example of An example of speculative model (1) speculative model (1)

Condillac: Condillac:Traité Traité sur sur l l’ ’origine

• rigine des

des connaissances connaissances (1744) As a sensitive animal, immersed in the flow of As a sensitive animal, immersed in the flow of information provided by the whole world, man can only information provided by the whole world, man can only acquire memory using random signs: acquire memory using random signs:

• i) accidental signs: objects linked accidentally to our

i) accidental signs: objects linked accidentally to our ideas and which may ideas and which may “ “wake them up wake them up” ”; ;

• ii) natural signs: screams linked by nature to our

ii) natural signs: screams linked by nature to our feelings; feelings;

• iii) institution signs that we have chosen ourselves:

iii) institution signs that we have chosen ourselves: these are these are “ “random random” ” signs which he can call back at will. signs which he can call back at will.

11.1 11.1 – – An example of An example of speculative model (2): speculative model (2):

Condillac Condillac and and Grammar Grammar (1775) (1775)

• The first means available to man to communicate are

The first means available to man to communicate are gestures, face movements and inarticulate accents. gestures, face movements and inarticulate accents. They form the language of action, natural to all the They form the language of action, natural to all the individuals of a same species, but which requires a individuals of a same species, but which requires a learning process. From observing his body, man learning process. From observing his body, man started to interpret what was happening for someone started to interpret what was happening for someone else. else.

• If for the empiricist philosopher, there is no innate idea,

If for the empiricist philosopher, there is no innate idea, there is an innate language. there is an innate language.

11.2 11.2 – – An example of An example of speculative model (2) speculative model (2)

• The language of simultaneous ideas is the only

The language of simultaneous ideas is the only natural language. The language of action natural language. The language of action enables to analyse and break down the thought enables to analyse and break down the thought process and hence it extends by analogy using process and hence it extends by analogy using artificial signs. In so doing things are not artificial signs. In so doing things are not represented according to their nature, but represented according to their nature, but according to our own representations. according to our own representations.

• Accents (screams) are part of the language of

Accents (screams) are part of the language of action, they lend themselves better to express action, they lend themselves better to express

• ur feelings and are perfected artificially.
• ur feelings and are perfected artificially.

11.3 11.3 – – An example of An example of speculative model (2): speculative model (2):

• (

(… …) languages are the work of nature; ( ) languages are the work of nature; (… …) they ) they took shape, to a certain extent, without our took shape, to a certain extent, without our knowing; ( knowing; (… …) by working on it, we barely ) by working on it, we barely

• beyed
• beyed servilely

servilely our way of seeing and feeling.

• ur way of seeing and feeling.
• (

(… …) languages have completed their ) languages have completed their development when men, ceasing to generate development when men, ceasing to generate new needs, also cease to produce new ideas. new needs, also cease to produce new ideas.

12 12 – – The meaning of the The meaning of the speculative model speculative model

• This is a thinking experience of the same nature as
• This is a thinking experience of the same nature as

that mentioned by the empiricist theoreticians of that mentioned by the empiricist theoreticians of knowledge (Diderot spoke of "mute of convention knowledge (Diderot spoke of "mute of convention” ”); we ); we may be talking of may be talking of “ “fiction fiction” ”. .

• The model may be compared with the political theory
• The model may be compared with the political theory
• f the origin of law (Rousseau)
• f the origin of law (Rousseau)

; the social contract ; the social contract provides a break between the order of natural facts and provides a break between the order of natural facts and the order of norms, linguistic arbitrary a break between the order of norms, linguistic arbitrary a break between nature and culture, invariance and history. Legal fiction nature and culture, invariance and history. Legal fiction (on a consensus basis) underpins positive law; (on a consensus basis) underpins positive law; linguistic fiction does not enjoy quite the same status, it linguistic fiction does not enjoy quite the same status, it reveals the essence of human language. reveals the essence of human language.

13 13 – – The limits of the The limits of the speculative model speculative model

• A priori hypotheses: all the discussions revolve around

A priori hypotheses: all the discussions revolve around different conceptions of human nature; the opposed different conceptions of human nature; the opposed solutions hence depend on solutions hence depend on a priori a priori hypotheses. hypotheses.

• No possible falsification (and little confirmation!): no

No possible falsification (and little confirmation!): no sufficiently established fact, not even in the sufficiently established fact, not even in the physiological domain, is available to reject a model or physiological domain, is available to reject a model or discuss any empirical base; palaeontology does not discuss any empirical base; palaeontology does not exist and the anthropology contained in the travellers exist and the anthropology contained in the travellers’ ’ and missionaries and missionaries’ ’ stories only provides sporadic stories only provides sporadic results. results.

14.1 -

• T

The s shock o

• f

14.1 -

• T

The s shock o

• f

languages: g grammatisation languages: g grammatisation

• The Western World has long been content with fitting

The Western World has long been content with fitting with with “ “linguistic tools linguistic tools” ” (grammar and dictionary, mainly) (grammar and dictionary, mainly) either a culture's vernacular (Greek) or, by transfer, either a culture's vernacular (Greek) or, by transfer, another vernacular which is substituted for it in playing another vernacular which is substituted for it in playing this part (Latin, in particular). With the Renaissance, this part (Latin, in particular). With the Renaissance, this grammatisation changes dimension: the this grammatisation changes dimension: the colonisation of the world leads to colonisation of the world leads to grammatising grammatising the the encountered languages and the development of State encountered languages and the development of State Nations, the European languages. Nations, the European languages.

14.2 -

• T

The s shock o

• f

14.2 -

• T

The s shock o

• f

languages: g grammatisation languages: g grammatisation

• This may sound astonishing today, but the

This may sound astonishing today, but the grammatisation of European vernaculars is strictly grammatisation of European vernaculars is strictly contemporary to that of the languages of the world (the contemporary to that of the languages of the world (the first hand-written grammar of first hand-written grammar of Nahuatl Nahuatl dates from dates from 1547). 1547).

• An example of the Spanish linguistic heritage on

An example of the Spanish linguistic heritage on Amerindian languages: - end of Amerindian languages: - end of XVIth XVIth century, 33 century, 33 languages; - end of languages; - end of XVIIth XVIIth century, 86 languages; end century, 86 languages; end

• f
• f XVIIIth

XVIIIth century, 158 languages. century, 158 languages.

• When truly linguistic equipment is lacking, basic

When truly linguistic equipment is lacking, basic vocabularies are used to give an overview. vocabularies are used to give an overview.

15 15 – – The grammatisation The grammatisation

• f European vernaculars
• f European vernaculars

16 16 – – The The “ “historical historical” ” model model

• This heaping up of knowledge necessarily leads to query the

This heaping up of knowledge necessarily leads to query the nature of language as well as the nature of man. Collecting the nature of language as well as the nature of man. Collecting the set if materials may prompt to solve the question: set if materials may prompt to solve the question:

• Antoine Court de Gébelin

Antoine Court de Gébelin, , Monde Monde Primitif Primitif comparé comparé et et analysé analysé avec le avec le Monde Monde Moderne Moderne, (Primitive World compared and analysed , (Primitive World compared and analysed with Modern World) Paris, the Author, 1773-1782, 9 with Modern World) Paris, the Author, 1773-1782, 9 vols vols, in 4°. , in 4°.

• James Burnet, Lord

James Burnet, Lord Monboddo Monboddo, , Of the Origin and Progress of Of the Origin and Progress of Language Language, London/Edinburgh, 1773, 6 vols. , London/Edinburgh, 1773, 6 vols.

• These enormous and famous works have a fundamental

These enormous and famous works have a fundamental philosophical aim: for one of them (representative of the Reformed philosophical aim: for one of them (representative of the Reformed Churches of France) to show the continuum between nature and Churches of France) to show the continuum between nature and culture, for the other to take stock of culture, for the other to take stock of empirism empirism and and Aristotelism Aristotelism. .

17.1 - The continuum of 17.1 - The continuum of compilations compilations

Later on numerous compilations have borrowed this type of programme, by Later on numerous compilations have borrowed this type of programme, by emphasising the emphasising the compilatory compilatory aspect more strongly: aspect more strongly:

• Abbé

Abbé Lorenzo Lorenzo Hervas Hervas y y Panduro Panduro, , Catalogo Catalogo delle delle lingue lingue conosciute conosciute e e notizia notizia della della loro loro affinita affinita e e diversita diversita, (catalogue of known languages and specification of their , (catalogue of known languages and specification of their affinity and diversity) Cesena, affinity and diversity) Cesena, Biasani Biasani, 1784, in 4°, 260 p. , 1784, in 4°, 260 p. ; ; Catalogo Catalogo de de las las lenguas lenguas de de las las naciones naciones conocidas conocidas, y , y numeracion numeracion, division y , division y clases clases de de estas estas segun segun la la diversidad diversidad de de sus sus idiomas idiomas y y dialectos dialectos, Madrid, , Madrid, Impr

• Impr. De la

. De la Administracion Administracion del real del real Arbitrio Arbitrio de de Beneficiencia Beneficiencia (on the administration of real arbitrary of (on the administration of real arbitrary of beneficence), 1800-1805, 6 beneficence), 1800-1805, 6 vols vols in 4°. in 4°.

• Peter Simon Pallas

Peter Simon Pallas, , Linguarum Linguarum totius totius

• rbis
• rbis

vocabularia vocabularia comparativa comparativa Augustissimae Augustissimae cura cura collecta collecta, Saint Petersburg, De , Saint Petersburg, De Schoor Schoor, 1787-1789 (based on , 1787-1789 (based on an investigation commissioned by Catherine II). an investigation commissioned by Catherine II).

• Johann

Johann Christoph Christoph Adelung Adelung and and Johann Johann Severin Severin Vater Vater, , Mithridates Mithridates

• der
• der

allgemeine allgemeine Sprachenkunde Sprachenkunde mit mit dem dem Vater Vater unser unser als als Sprachprobe Sprachprobe in in bey bey nahe nahe fünfhundert fünfhundert Sprachen Sprachen und und Mundarten Mundarten, Berlin, 1806-1817, 4 vols. , Berlin, 1806-1817, 4 vols.

• Adrienno

Adrienno Balbi Balbi, , Atlas ethnographique du Globe ou classification des peuples Atlas ethnographique du Globe ou classification des peuples anciens et modernes d anciens et modernes d’ ’après leurs langues après leurs langues (Paris, Rey et Gravier), Paris, 1824. (Paris, Rey et Gravier), Paris, 1824.

17.2 - The continuum of 17.2 - The continuum of compilations compilations

• This movement was hence systematically pursued during the

This movement was hence systematically pursued during the following century, sometimes by using shorter texts ( following century, sometimes by using shorter texts (Adelung Adelung and and Vater). The listed languages increased from some sixty in Court Vater). The listed languages increased from some sixty in Court de Gébelin to 500 in de Gébelin to 500 in Balbi Balbi who conjectured there might be 2000. who conjectured there might be 2000. Globally, from a very external viewpoint, the first works of the Globally, from a very external viewpoint, the first works of the comparatists comparatists must be inserted into the trend, if many a book with must be inserted into the trend, if many a book with more restricted aim is added thereto (on Asia or Europe). more restricted aim is added thereto (on Asia or Europe).

• It is Vater who, in the preface to volume 2 of

It is Vater who, in the preface to volume 2 of Mithridates Mithridates (1808), (1808), uses the neologism uses the neologism ‘ ‘Linguistik Linguistik” ” to designate the science which to designate the science which studies studies “ “the properties of different languages, gives a the properties of different languages, gives a classification thereof and, building upon it, draws conclusions on classification thereof and, building upon it, draws conclusions on their genealogy and their properties their genealogy and their properties” ”. .

18.1 -

• P

Physical f foundation o

• f

18.1 -

• P

Physical f foundation o

• f

human l language human l language

The The XVIIIth XVIIIth century saw indisputable breakthroughs in phonetics, century saw indisputable breakthroughs in phonetics, from a physiological as well as acoustic viewpoint: from a physiological as well as acoustic viewpoint:

• correct physiological description of the

correct physiological description of the phonatory phonatory system; system;

• differentiating sound (which is periodic and produces vowels) from

differentiating sound (which is periodic and produces vowels) from noise (which is non-periodic, whereas an organ, lips, tongue, etc. noise (which is non-periodic, whereas an organ, lips, tongue, etc. disturb the sound); using a tube model for the trachea (flute); disturb the sound); using a tube model for the trachea (flute); unfortunately, resonance no more than the role of the nasal and unfortunately, resonance no more than the role of the nasal and pharyngeal cavities are then understood: there is only one basic pharyngeal cavities are then understood: there is only one basic vowel ( vowel (“ “a a” ”), the others are variations in height; ), the others are variations in height;

• role of the vocal cords (1741) and mode of vibrating cords (silent

role of the vocal cords (1741) and mode of vibrating cords (silent consonants had been distinguished by ear from voiced consonants had been distinguished by ear from voiced consonants); consonants);

18.2 - Physical foundation 18.2 - Physical foundation

• f human language
• f human language
• President

President Charles de Charles de Brosses Brosses ( (Traité Traité de la formation de la formation mécanique mécanique des des langues langues

• u
• u

Principes Principes physiques de physiques de l l’é ’étymologie tymologie ( (Treatise on Treatise on the mechanical formation of languages or Physical principles of the mechanical formation of languages or Physical principles of etymology) etymology) Paris, 1765) uses this knowledge for reconstructing Paris, 1765) uses this knowledge for reconstructing “ “natural natural” ” and primitive sounds: they would supposedly contain the and primitive sounds: they would supposedly contain the vowel (a) and the consonants derived from the five speech vowel (a) and the consonants derived from the five speech

• rgans.
• rgans.
• By imitation, these sounds become signifying and form the

By imitation, these sounds become signifying and form the first first language language

• f humanity
• f humanity.

.

• He launches the program of a

He launches the program of a Universal listing system Universal listing system, to , to enable classification of all the words per origin. enable classification of all the words per origin.

19 19 – – Nature and culture Nature and culture

• As of the

As of the Monde Monde Primitif Primitif leaflet in 1772, the aim of Court de leaflet in 1772, the aim of Court de Gébelin is to connect the "primitive world" from nature of the world Gébelin is to connect the "primitive world" from nature of the world

• f spirit. It is somehow nature properly speaking which, through
• f spirit. It is somehow nature properly speaking which, through

man, becomes signifying through language and gives birth to the man, becomes signifying through language and gives birth to the world of symbols and spirit. Only Hegel, in the midst of the world of symbols and spirit. Only Hegel, in the midst of the romantic era, embarked on a (crazy!) project of such scope. romantic era, embarked on a (crazy!) project of such scope.

• There is hence

There is hence one

• ne

“ “natural natural” ” and universal language: the organic and universal language: the organic language discovered by De language discovered by De Brosses Brosses, the language considered as , the language considered as the mother of all languages. For demonstration purposes, all the the mother of all languages. For demonstration purposes, all the languages only need to be compared using a scientific method languages only need to be compared using a scientific method resting on basic vocabularies in order to reconstruct the resting on basic vocabularies in order to reconstruct the “ “primitive primitive language language” ”. .

20 20 – – A multilateral model A multilateral model

• f comparison
• f comparison
• the word is the basic element;
• the word is the basic element;
• inside the word, sounds may change contingently (=arbitrarily)
• inside the word, sounds may change contingently (=arbitrarily)

while remaining within the framework of the same speech organ; while remaining within the framework of the same speech organ;

• if one word can be connected to another by sound changes, due
• if one word can be connected to another by sound changes, due

to figures ( to figures (metaplasm metaplasm, such as permutation, metathesis, etc.), as , such as permutation, metathesis, etc.), as long as their meaning can be connected by a figure of sense (a long as their meaning can be connected by a figure of sense (a trope such as metaphor, metonymy, etc.) or a sequence of trope such as metaphor, metonymy, etc.) or a sequence of figures, we are dealing with the same word. figures, we are dealing with the same word.

• languages reveal
• languages reveal “

“word families word families” ”, whose every ancestor has a , whose every ancestor has a proper seat in the dictionary of the primitive language. proper seat in the dictionary of the primitive language.

21 21 – – Modern and Modern and rationalist ideas rationalist ideas

• The history of civilisations becomes a matter of

The history of civilisations becomes a matter of calculation ( calculation (Monde Monde Primitif Primitif, I , I : 83, 1773). : 83, 1773).

• These principles or laws are at work in every language,

These principles or laws are at work in every language, whatever it may be, regardless of the time and place: whatever it may be, regardless of the time and place: they underpin every etymological research and every they underpin every etymological research and every language comparison. language comparison. (Histoire (Histoire Naturelle Naturelle de la Parole de la Parole

• u
• u

Origine Origine du du Langage Langage, de , de l l’ ’Ecriture Ecriture et de la et de la Grammaire Grammaire Universelle Universelle à à l l’ ’usage usage des des Jeunes Jeunes Gens), Gens), 1776, in the 1776, in the Lanjuinais Lanjuinais edition (1816) of this synthesis edition (1816) of this synthesis

• f the first volumes of the
• f the first volumes of the “

“Monde Monde Primitif Primitif", 96.). ", 96.).

22 22 – – The a achievements o

• f t

the The a achievements o

• f t

the method method

• Since the

Since the XVIth XVIth century the comparison of century the comparison of vocabularies has harvested a heap of results, vocabularies has harvested a heap of results, mainly on poorly-known languages. mainly on poorly-known languages.

• As soon as the Tahiti vocabulary was

As soon as the Tahiti vocabulary was published on Bougainville published on Bougainville’ ’s return, Court de s return, Court de Gébelin was able to trace the ancestry of that Gébelin was able to trace the ancestry of that language to neighbouring islands and language to neighbouring islands and Malaysia, (« Malaysia, (« De De l l’ ’origine

• rigine et des

et des propriétés propriétés de la de la langue langue parlée parlée dans dans l l’ ’ile ile de de Taïti Taïti » » Court de Court de Gébelin de l Gébelin de l’ ’ Académie Académie Royale de La Rochelle, Royale de La Rochelle, MS, Archives de Bordeaux, n° 63, 1772). MS, Archives de Bordeaux, n° 63, 1772).

23.1 - The 23.1 - The overcomparison

• vercomparison

Unfortunately, two other versions of the same Unfortunately, two other versions of the same text are available: text are available:

• In 1777, «

In 1777, « Langues Langues des Isles de la des Isles de la Mer Mer du du Sud Sud » » (Languages of the Southern Sea (Languages of the Southern Sea Islands), in Islands), in Recherches Recherches Historiques Historiques et et Géographiques Géographiques sur sur le Nouveau le Nouveau Monde Monde, , par par Jean- Jean-Baptiste Baptiste Scherer, p. 336-345, he adds the Scherer, p. 336-345, he adds the Amerindian world, where the Amerindian world, where the “ “Southern Southern Islands Islands” ” were hence populated by were hence populated by “ “Southern Southern Asia Asia” ”. .

23.2 - The 23.2 - The overcomparison

• vercomparison
• In 1781, in the

In 1781, in the Monde Monde Primitif Primitif (« (« Langues Langues sudéennes sudéennes

• u
• u des Isles

des Isles répandues répandues dans dans la la Mer Mer du du Sud Sud » », , Monde Monde Primitif Primitif, , t. VIII, 537-553) it

• t. VIII, 537-553) it

adds a few more still and concludes that adds a few more still and concludes that “ “everything establishes the closest everything establishes the closest communication among all the Southern islands communication among all the Southern islands

• f our globe in both hemispheres and
• f our globe in both hemispheres and

everything points to the Phoenicians on that everything points to the Phoenicians on that score ( score (l.c l.c., 553). ., 553).

25 25 – – The first The first “ “tree tree”’ ”’ of the

• f the

languages of humanity languages of humanity

25.1 25.1 – – William Jones and William Jones and the the overcomparison

• vercomparison
• W. Jones (considered by some as the father of
• W. Jones (considered by some as the father of

compared grammar) in his famous 1786 compared grammar) in his famous 1786 address at the Asiatic Society of Calcutta address at the Asiatic Society of Calcutta follows the same erratic avenue as Court de follows the same erratic avenue as Court de Gébelin and his contemporaries: Gébelin and his contemporaries:

• the affinities between Greek, Persian and

the affinities between Greek, Persian and Sanskrit testify to a common origin ( Sanskrit testify to a common origin (l.c. l.c., p. 15). , p. 15). A hypothesis which eventually proved correct A hypothesis which eventually proved correct and fecund and fecund. .

25.2 25.2 – – William Jones and William Jones and the the overcomparison

• vercomparison

But along with Court de Gébelin, he cannot But along with Court de Gébelin, he cannot refrain from pushing his luck: refrain from pushing his luck:

• the inhabitants of India have an

the inhabitants of India have an “ “immemorial immemorial affinity affinity” ” with the with the “ “Ancient Persians, Ethiopians, Ancient Persians, Ethiopians, Egyptians, Phoenicians, Celts, Chinese, Egyptians, Phoenicians, Celts, Chinese, Japanese and Peruvians Japanese and Peruvians” ”, and as these , and as these nations have colonised one another, he nations have colonised one another, he concludes that concludes that “ “all of them originated from all of them originated from some central region" ( some central region" (l.c. l.c., p. 20). , p. 20). Quite an absurd hypothesis due to Quite an absurd hypothesis due to

• vercomparison
• vercomparison.

.

26 26 – – Criticisms of the Criticisms of the multilateral method (1) multilateral method (1)

Using the method of intuitive semantic parallels Using the method of intuitive semantic parallels and the licence of and the licence of “ “letter letter” ” permutations, any permutations, any kinship can be demonstrated: kinship can be demonstrated:

• The methodological weakness:

The methodological weakness: “ “ Etymological Etymological science based on simple similarities between science based on simple similarities between current forms and on possible subtractions, current forms and on possible subtractions, addition, translation and transformation ( addition, translation and transformation (… …) is ) is prone to the wildest mistakes prone to the wildest mistakes” ” ( (Lanjuinais Lanjuinais, , éd éd. . Histoire Histoire naturelle naturelle de la parole, de la parole, 1816, 66). 1816, 66).

27.1 - Criticisms of the 27.1 - Criticisms of the multilateral method (1) multilateral method (1) : :

• The universal convergence of languages

The universal convergence of languages is practically a statistical must and, is practically a statistical must and, consequently, the universal comparison consequently, the universal comparison is useless, since it does not prove is useless, since it does not prove anything. anything.

27.2 -

• C

Convergence i is a a 27.2 -

• C

Convergence i is a a statistical m must statistical m must

• Despite its flexibility, in spite of the large multiplicity of sounds

Despite its flexibility, in spite of the large multiplicity of sounds which can be rendered by practice, the human voice could not which can be rendered by practice, the human voice could not reach beyond the limits assigned to its conformation, and from reach beyond the limits assigned to its conformation, and from then on, by comparing all the languages relative to one another, then on, by comparing all the languages relative to one another, we always find the same sounds, diversely combined and we always find the same sounds, diversely combined and admittedly more or less modified by usage; but expressing most admittedly more or less modified by usage; but expressing most

• ften distinct things in distant languages, most often identical in
• ften distinct things in distant languages, most often identical in

neighbouring languages. The more widespread a language, the neighbouring languages. The more widespread a language, the more its roots are almost constantly reduced to an emission of more its roots are almost constantly reduced to an emission of sounds, and consequently far more limited than the rest of the sounds, and consequently far more limited than the rest of the language, the larger number of similar sounds will be language, the larger number of similar sounds will be encountered, while the words will be distinct from one another. encountered, while the words will be distinct from one another.

• D

D’ ’Orbigny Orbigny, , L L’ ’homme homme Américain Américain, , (Paris, 1939, 19. (Paris, 1939, 19.

28 28 – – Criticisms of the Criticisms of the multilateral method (3) multilateral method (3)

The cul-de-sac of multilateral kinships The cul-de-sac of multilateral kinships As can be seen on the language of Tahiti, As can be seen on the language of Tahiti,

• vercomparison
• vercomparison leads to a cul-de-sac as regards

leads to a cul-de-sac as regards family-based kinships; two programmes which, taken family-based kinships; two programmes which, taken together, form every project together, form every project “ “after the manner of after the manner of Court de Gébelin Court de Gébelin” ” are totally incompatible: are totally incompatible:

• searching for resemblances between all languages

searching for resemblances between all languages for reconstructing the for reconstructing the “ “mother language mother language” ” of humanity

• f humanity
• r primitive language;
• r primitive language;
• searching for resemblances between the languages

searching for resemblances between the languages forming the same family descending from a common forming the same family descending from a common ancestor and reconstructing said ancestor. ancestor and reconstructing said ancestor.

29 - The solutions of 29 - The solutions of comparatism comparatism (1) (1)

Grimm (1822, second edition of the Grimm (1822, second edition of the Grammar of the German Grammar of the German Language Language) creates a true ) creates a true epistemologic epistemologic revolution: revolution:

• the element of change is not the word any longer (individual sound

the element of change is not the word any longer (individual sound and meaning) but the and meaning) but the phonem phonem (the (the “ “letter letter” ”); );

• change takes place in all the occurrences of the considered

change takes place in all the occurrences of the considered phonem phonem (what is called a phonetic (what is called a phonetic “ “law law” ”); );

• it is oriented and specific to every language (or at most to a group

it is oriented and specific to every language (or at most to a group

• f well-defined languages as in the case of Germanic languages).
• f well-defined languages as in the case of Germanic languages).
• Kinships should be limited using localised and empirically

Kinships should be limited using localised and empirically

• bservable regularities.
• bservable regularities.

30.1 - The solutions of 30.1 - The solutions of comparatism comparatism (2) (2)

One of the first major Indo-European One of the first major Indo-European comparatists comparatists, F. Bopp, hastens to elect a , F. Bopp, hastens to elect a solution too often overlooked: solution too often overlooked:

• We shall only abstain from penetrating the

We shall only abstain from penetrating the mystery of the roots or, in other words, the mystery of the roots or, in other words, the reason why a given primitive conception is reason why a given primitive conception is marked by a particular sound and not another marked by a particular sound and not another ( (Vergleichende Gram.., Vergleichende Gram.., 1833-1852, 2nd ed., 1833-1852, 2nd ed., 1857-1861, 1). 1857-1861, 1).

30.2 - The solutions of 30.2 - The solutions of comparatism comparatism (2) (2)

This solution (arbitrary roots) has won the upper hand, even in the This solution (arbitrary roots) has won the upper hand, even in the disciples of V. von Humboldt: disciples of V. von Humboldt:

• The affinities among the three strains (i.e. the strain of Sanskrit or

The affinities among the three strains (i.e. the strain of Sanskrit or Indo-European languages, of Semitic languages and of Malaysian Indo-European languages, of Semitic languages and of Malaysian languages) are solely limited to what is common to human languages) are solely limited to what is common to human language in general ( language in general (… …) (Johan ) (Johan Buschmann Buschmann, , Aperçu Aperçu de la langue de la langue de Tahiti, de Tahiti, précédé précédé d d’ ’une une introduction introduction sur sur l l’ ’histoire histoire et la et la géographie géographie de de l l’ ’archipel archipel des Marquises des Marquises, Berlin, 1843, 35) , Berlin, 1843, 35)

• Kinships ought to be limited, while considering reconstructed

Kinships ought to be limited, while considering reconstructed roots of empirically well-attested major families as purely roots of empirically well-attested major families as purely arbitrary. arbitrary.

31.1 31.1 – – Consequences Consequences

• One can say that as of the 1830

One can say that as of the 1830’ ’s, the s, the comparatists comparatists have established their method, by have established their method, by casting aside the programmes casting aside the programmes “ “after the after the manner of Court de Gébelin manner of Court de Gébelin” ”. The unparalleled . The unparalleled achievements of compared grammar can only achievements of compared grammar can only be grasped if giving up be grasped if giving up aforehand aforehand reaching the reaching the

• rigin of languages on the basis of the
• rigin of languages on the basis of the

comparatist comparatist methods. methods.

31.2 31.2 – – Consequences Consequences

• The famous article II of the statuses from the

The famous article II of the statuses from the Linguistic Society of Paris (1866), which, to be Linguistic Society of Paris (1866), which, to be in keeping with time, restricted linguistics to in keeping with time, restricted linguistics to comparatism comparatism, is nothing but one of the late , is nothing but one of the late formulations of the formulations of the basic basic principle principle, , admitted admitted from scratch by all major from scratch by all major comparatists

• comparatists. He

. He certainly did not mean to reject every approach certainly did not mean to reject every approach to the origin of languages, as testified by the to the origin of languages, as testified by the multiple works of linguists in the multiple works of linguists in the XIXth XIXth century, century, such as Renan, who was one of the presidents such as Renan, who was one of the presidents

• f the Society and Michel
• f the Society and Michel Bréal

Bréal, who long was , who long was the secretary thereof. the secretary thereof.

32 32 – – What r remains o

• f t

the What r remains o

• f t

the Lumières Lumières? ?

• The speculative model is impossible to forge, and

The speculative model is impossible to forge, and hardly lends itself to empiric support: the historical hardly lends itself to empiric support: the historical model (multilateral comparison) is contradictory. model (multilateral comparison) is contradictory. Switching to compared grammar supposes an Switching to compared grammar supposes an epistemologic epistemologic revolution (a change in paradigm). revolution (a change in paradigm).

• The

The Lumières Lumières opened up a path,

• pened up a path, grantedly

grantedly a a precocious path, but in so doing, they moved the issue precocious path, but in so doing, they moved the issue to a new scientific ( to a new scientific (‘ ‘natural natural” ”) and secular field. ) and secular field. From this viewpoint, we are all the heirs to the From this viewpoint, we are all the heirs to the Lumières Lumières. .