HUMAN T RAF F I CK I NG AND ONL I NE NE T WORK S: SOME - PowerPoint PPT Presentation

HUMAN T RAF F I CK I NG AND ONL I NE NE T WORK S: SOME I NSI GHT S F ROM AND GAPS I N T HE L I T E RAT URE Dr Jo na tha n Me nd e l Dund e e Unive rsity

ACK NOWL E DGE ME NT S • I d ra w ve ry muc h o n re se a rc h wo rk b y Ja nine Hunte r a t Dund e e Unive rsity • T his pro je c t wa s fund e d b y the Sc o ttish Cruc ib le • I wo rk a t Dund e e Unive rsity – a s pa rt o f the Sc o ttish I nstitute fo r Po lic ing Re se a rc h a nd the Ge o g ra phy pro g ra mme • T he vie ws he re a re , o f c o urse , my o wn

SUMMARY • Disc uss ke y d e finitio n o f huma n tra ffic king , a nd so me issue s o f d e finitio n • L o o k a t wha t we c a n le a rn fro m the a c a d e mic lite ra ture a b o ut the histo ry a nd c urre nt pra c tic e o f using c o mpute rs a nd o nline ne two rks fo r: • c rime • se x a nd e xplo ita tio n • la b o ur e xplo ita tio n • Co nsid e r ho w we mig ht mo st he lpfully unde rsta nd o nline spa c e s o f tra ffic king • Disc uss wha t is ne w • Summa rise wha t the lite ra ture te lls us • Re fle c t o n ke y g a ps, a nd o ppo rtunitie s fo r future re se a rc h

DE F I NI T I ONS • Artic le 3, pa ra g ra ph (a ) o f the UN Pro to c o l to Pre ve nt, Suppre ss a nd Punish T ra ffic king in Pe rso ns pro vid e s a c le a r a nd muc h use d d e finitio n o f T ra ffic king in Huma n Be ing s (T HB) a s: • ‘ the re c ruitme nt, tra nspo rta tio n, tra nsfe r, ha rb o uring , o r re c e ipt o f pe rso ns b y me a ns o f the thre a t o r use o f fo rc e o r o the r fo rms o f c o e rc io n, o f a b d uc tio n, o f fra ud , o f d e c e ptio n, o f the a b use o f po we r […] fo r the purpo se o f e xplo ita tio n’ (Unite d Na tio ns, 2004). • Ho we ve r, d iffe re nc e s b e twe e n tra ffic king a nd smug g ling ha ve b e e n c ha lle ng e d , fo r e xa mple : • ‘ I ma g ine d a s fixe d a nd o ppo sitio na l c a te g o rie s, fre e d o m a nd sla ve ry ma p o nto o the r c o re d ua lisms o f lib e ra l tho ug ht, a nd wo rk to pro d uc e a c c o unts o f the so c ia l wo rld in whic h huma n b e ing s a re e ithe r fre e , in whic h c a se the y a re a ssume d to e xe rc ise se lf-so ve re ig nty, o r e nsla ve d , in whic h c a se the y a re ima g ine d a s e va c ua te d o f a g e nc y a nd re d uc e d to a n o b je c t-like c o nd itio n.” (O’ Co nne ll Da vid so n 2013: 2)

DE F I NI T I ONS • Wo rth no ting tha t o ne thing the lite ra ture d o e sn’ t pro vid e is c la rity o n a d e finitio n o f tra ffic king (o r ‘ mo d e rn sla ve ry’ ): pe rha ps b e tte r to d isc uss a mig ra tio n c o ntinuum o r e xplo ita tio n c o ntinuum? • Ab se nt a g re e me nt o n a c le a r d e finitio n o f tra ffic king , the re is a n a rg ume nt fo r fle xib ility: • ‘ Altho ug h it is b e yo nd the sc o pe o f this stud y to fully a d d re ss the c o mple x d isc o urse o n tra ffic king , it is wo rth no ting the ma ny te nsio ns tha t a rise . So me d ic ho to mie s a re d e finitio na l, suc h a s d o me stic o r inte rna tio na l; c itize n o r fo re ig ne r; d o c ume nte d o r und o c ume nte d wo rke r; vic tim o r survivo r. Othe r te nsio ns invo lve c o mple xitie s suc h a s ind ivid ua l tra ffic ke r o r o rg a nize d c rime ; so ld b y fa mily o r sto le n fro m fa mily…’ (L a to ne ro 2011).

COMPUT E RS AND CRI ME • “Co mpute rs ha ve ushe re d in a ne w a g e fille d with the po te ntia l fo r g o o d . Unfo rtuna te ly, the c o mpute r a g e a lso ha s ushe re d in ne w type s o f c rime fo r the po lic e to a d d re ss.” (F BI ) • Ab o ve q uo te is fro m a 1996 b ulle tin (Ca rte r a nd K a tz 1996): c o mpute rs ha ve b e e n po sing ‘ ne w’ c ha lle ng e s fo r a lo ng time • F BI (1996) a rg ue s tha t “L a w e nfo rc e me nt must se e k wa ys to ke e p the d ra wb a c ks [o f c o mpute r c rime ] fro m o ve rsha d o wing the g re a t pro mise o f the c o mpute r a g e .” Ho we ve r, Ca rr a nd Willia ms’ (2000) a na lysis o f la ws a g a inst c o mpute r misuse in thre e c o untrie s find s tha t the se “c rimina l la ws ha ve mo re to d o with po litic a l a nd e c o no mic c o mpe titio n tha n with a ny g e nuine a tte mpt to c urta il intrusive a nd d e struc tive a c tivitie s d ire c te d a t c o mpute rs”.

COMPUT E RS AND CRI ME • Online ne two rks a re still c re a ting o ppo rtunitie s fo r ne w type s o f c rime a nd e xplo ita tio n, a nd this is still ha rd to c ha lle ng e • T he se ne two rks a re a lso ma king it po ssib le to c a rry o ut muc h o ld e r c rime s using ne w to o ls • Po te ntia l to use o nline ne two rks to c ha lle ng e c rime a nd e xplo ita tio n, to o

COMPUT E RS, SE X AND E XPL OI T AT I ON • b o yd a nd E lliso n (2007) sho w tha t se x a nd se xua lity a re sig nific a nt fa c to rs in the spa c e s o f so c ia l ne two rks, a nd ha ve b e e n fo r so me time • T his ve ry o fte n ta ke s pla c e in po sitive o r b e nig n wa ys, b ut c a n b e mo re pro b le ma tic • T he I nte rne t ha s ha d a ro le in se x wo rk o ve r a lo ng pe rio d (fo r e xa mple , se e Sha d e 1996 o n a lt.se x.se rvic e s) • T he re a lso is a lo ng histo ry o f the I nte rne t b e ing use d in se xua l e xplo ita tio n a nd a b use : fo r e xa mple , Hug he s (1999) d e sc rib e s use s o f ne wsg ro ups to d isc uss whe re in Ba ng ko k o ffe re d “the b e st c ha nc e o f find ing g uys se lling ve ry yo ung g irls – pre -te e ns” • L a to ne ro e t a l. (2011; 2012) ha ve e vid e nc e d the use o f c o mpute rs a nd mo b ile te c hno lo g y in wha t lo o ks like se xua l e xplo ita tio n

ONL I NE NE T WORK S AND L ABOUR E XPL OI T AT I ON • T his isn’ t a who lly ne g a tive pic ture : Ho rto n’ s 2010 re se a rc h find s tha t “o n a ve ra g e , wo rke rs pe rc e ive o nline e mplo ye rs to b e slig htly fa ire r a nd mo re ho ne st tha n o ffline e mplo ye rs” • Skriva nko va (2010: 4) a rg ue s tha t the “re a lity o f fo rc e d la b o ur is no t a sta tic o ne , b ut a c o ntinuum o f e xpe rie nc e s a nd situa tio ns [a nd ] a c o ntinuum sho uld the re fo re b e use d to d e sc rib e the c o mple xity o f the e xplo ita tive e nviro nme nts a nd c o nc re te ind ivid ua l situa tio ns o f wo rke rs” • Online ne two rks ha ve lo ng b e e n use d in va rio us type s o f la b o ur o n this c o ntinuum – fro m po o r pa y/ c o nd itio ns fo und thro ug h se rvic e s like Ama zo n T urk to fra ud ule nt a d ve rts o n site s like Unive rsa l Jo b ma tc h thro ug h to the use o f so c ia l ne two rks to d ra w pe o ple into e xplo ita tio n b y inte rna tio na l c rimina l ne two rks • Me d ic a l tria l re c ruitme nt a lso a po te ntia l fa c to r in T HB

ONL I NE NE T WORK S AND L ABOUR E XPL OI T AT I ON • Online ne two rks c le a rly pla y a ro le in T HB o utwith se x wo rk – e spe c ia lly g ive n the ir wid e re a c h. Ho we ve r, mo re re se a rc h is ne e d e d to lo o k a t the ir ro le o n e xplo ita tio n c o ntinuums • T he re a re a lso o ppo rtunitie s to use o nline ne two rks to c ha lle ng e la b o ur e xplo ita tio n – a s c a n b e se e n, fo r e xa mple , in o nline ta rg e ting o f c o mpa nie s who a re ‘ b a d ’ e mplo ye rs

ONL I NE SPACE S • Zo o k (2003) d isc usse s ho w the I nte rne t a d ult ind ustry b e ne fits fro m “Dig ita l pro d uc ts, lo w b a rrie rs to e ntry, c o st d iffe re ntia ls, a nd se nsitivity to re g ula tio n [whic h] ha ve c re a te d a pe rva sive a nd c o mple x g e o g ra phy o f mo d e ls, we b ma ste rs, a nd c o nsume rs a ro und the g lo b e ” a nd a rg ue s tha t “the `spa c e o f flo ws' c a nno t b e und e rsto o d witho ut re fe re nc e to the `spa c e o f pla c e s' to whic h it c o nne c ts.” • Gra ha m (2013) a rg ue s fo r a mo ve to “e mplo ying a lte rna te , nua nc e d a nd spa tia lly g ro und e d wa ys o f e nvisio ning the myria d wa ys in whic h the inte rne t me d ia te s so c ia l, e c o no mic a nd po litic a l e xpe rie nc e s”

ONL I NE SPACE S • I a rg ue (Me nd e l a nd Rie sc h, fo rthc o ming ) tha t the re ’ s a ne e d to c o nsid e r inte ra c tio ns b e twe e n o nline spa c e s a nd o the r pla c e s • T his le a ve s the q ue stio n o f ho w we und e rsta nd the type s o f o nline spa c e s use d in tra ffic king , a nd ho w the y c o nne c t to o the r pla c e s • T his a lso le a ve s the q ue stio n o f ho w to re se a rc h the se spa c e s • L a to ne ro e t a l. ha ve c o nd uc te d impo rta nt re se a rc h a ro und tra ffic king a nd se x wo rk • Ho we ve r, the re is a g ro wing b o d y o f wo rk sho wing the ne e d fo r mo re q ua ntita tive wo rk o n o nline spa c e s to b e c o mple me nte d b y q ua lita tive re se a rc h to und e rsta nd ho w re la tio nships d e ve lo p (fo r e xa mple Bro wn, Mc Gre g o r a nd L a urie r (2013); Hine (2000); Me nd e l a nd Rie sc h (fo rthc o ming ); Pa rr (2011: Cha pte r 6))