HUMAN T RAF F I CK I NG AND ONL I NE NE T WORK S: SOME - - PowerPoint PPT Presentation

HUMAN T RAF F I CK I NG AND ONL I NE NE T WORK S: SOME I NSI GHT S F ROM AND GAPS I N T HE L I T E RAT URE

Dr Jo na tha n Me nd e l Dund e e Unive rsity

ACK NOWL E DGE ME NT S

• I

d ra w ve ry muc h o n re se a rc h wo rk b y Ja nine Hunte r a t Dund e e Unive rsity

• T

his pro je c t wa s fund e d b y the Sc o ttish Cruc ib le

• I

wo rk a t Dund e e Unive rsity – a s pa rt o f the Sc o ttish I nstitute fo r Po lic ing Re se a rc h a nd the Ge o g ra phy pro g ra mme

• T

he vie ws he re a re , o f c o urse , my o wn

SUMMARY

• Disc uss ke y d e finitio n o f huma n tra ffic king , a nd so me issue s o f d e finitio n
• L
• o k a t wha t we c a n le a rn fro m the a c a d e mic lite ra ture a b o ut the histo ry

a nd c urre nt pra c tic e o f using c o mpute rs a nd o nline ne two rks fo r:

• c rime
• se x a nd e xplo ita tio n
• la b o ur e xplo ita tio n
• Co nsid e r ho w we mig ht mo st he lpfully unde rsta nd o nline spa c e s o f

tra ffic king

• Disc uss wha t is ne w
• Summa rise wha t the lite ra ture te lls us
• Re fle c t o n ke y g a ps, a nd o ppo rtunitie s fo r future re se a rc h

DE F I NI T I ONS

• Artic le 3, pa ra g ra ph (a ) o f the UN Pro to c o l to Pre ve nt, Suppre ss a nd Punish

T ra ffic king in Pe rso ns pro vid e s a c le a r a nd muc h use d d e finitio n o f T ra ffic king in Huma n Be ing s (T HB) a s:

• ‘ the re c ruitme nt, tra nspo rta tio n, tra nsfe r, ha rb o uring , o r re c e ipt o f pe rso ns b y me a ns
• f the thre a t o r use o f fo rc e o r o the r fo rms o f c o e rc io n, o f a b d uc tio n, o f fra ud , o f

d e c e ptio n, o f the a b use o f po we r […] fo r the purpo se o f e xplo ita tio n’ (Unite d Na tio ns, 2004).

• Ho we ve r, d iffe re nc e s b e twe e n tra ffic king a nd smug g ling ha ve b e e n c ha lle ng e d , fo r

e xa mple :

• ‘ I

ma g ine d a s fixe d a nd o ppo sitio na l c a te g o rie s, fre e d o m a nd sla ve ry ma p o nto

• the r c o re d ua lisms o f lib e ra l tho ug ht, a nd wo rk to pro d uc e a c c o unts o f the so c ia l

wo rld in whic h huma n b e ing s a re e ithe r fre e , in whic h c a se the y a re a ssume d to e xe rc ise se lf-so ve re ig nty, o r e nsla ve d , in whic h c a se the y a re ima g ine d a s e va c ua te d o f a g e nc y a nd re d uc e d to a n o b je c t-like c o nd itio n.” (O’ Co nne ll Da vid so n 2013: 2)

DE F I NI T I ONS

• Wo rth no ting tha t o ne thing the lite ra ture d o e sn’ t pro vid e is c la rity o n a

d e finitio n o f tra ffic king (o r ‘ mo d e rn sla ve ry’ ): pe rha ps b e tte r to d isc uss a mig ra tio n c o ntinuum o r e xplo ita tio n c o ntinuum?

• Ab se nt a g re e me nt o n a c le a r d e finitio n o f tra ffic king , the re is a n a rg ume nt

fo r fle xib ility:

• ‘ Altho ug h it is b e yo nd the sc o pe o f this stud y to fully a d d re ss the c o mple x

d isc o urse o n tra ffic king , it is wo rth no ting the ma ny te nsio ns tha t a rise . So me d ic ho to mie s a re d e finitio na l, suc h a s d o me stic o r inte rna tio na l; c itize n o r fo re ig ne r; d o c ume nte d o r und o c ume nte d wo rke r; vic tim o r survivo r. Othe r te nsio ns invo lve c o mple xitie s suc h a s ind ivid ua l tra ffic ke r o r o rg a nize d c rime ; so ld b y fa mily o r sto le n fro m fa mily…’ (L a to ne ro 2011).

COMPUT E RS AND CRI ME

• “Co mpute rs ha ve ushe re d in a ne w a g e fille d with the po te ntia l fo r g o o d .

Unfo rtuna te ly, the c o mpute r a g e a lso ha s ushe re d in ne w type s o f c rime fo r the po lic e to a d d re ss.” (F BI )

• Ab o ve q uo te is fro m a 1996 b ulle tin (Ca rte r a nd K

a tz 1996): c o mpute rs ha ve b e e n po sing ‘ ne w’ c ha lle ng e s fo r a lo ng time

• F

BI (1996) a rg ue s tha t “L a w e nfo rc e me nt must se e k wa ys to ke e p the d ra wb a c ks [o f c o mpute r c rime ] fro m o ve rsha d o wing the g re a t pro mise o f the c o mpute r a g e .” Ho we ve r, Ca rr a nd Willia ms’ (2000) a na lysis o f la ws a g a inst c o mpute r misuse in thre e c o untrie s find s tha t the se “c rimina l la ws ha ve mo re to d o with po litic a l a nd e c o no mic c o mpe titio n tha n with a ny g e nuine a tte mpt to c urta il intrusive a nd d e struc tive a c tivitie s d ire c te d a t c o mpute rs”.

COMPUT E RS AND CRI ME

• Online ne two rks a re still c re a ting o ppo rtunitie s fo r ne w type s o f c rime a nd

e xplo ita tio n, a nd this is still ha rd to c ha lle ng e

• T

he se ne two rks a re a lso ma king it po ssib le to c a rry o ut muc h o ld e r c rime s using ne w to o ls

• Po te ntia l to use o nline ne two rks to c ha lle ng e c rime a nd e xplo ita tio n, to o

COMPUT E RS, SE X AND E XPL OI T AT I ON

• b o yd a nd E

lliso n (2007) sho w tha t se x a nd se xua lity a re sig nific a nt fa c to rs in the spa c e s o f so c ia l ne two rks, a nd ha ve b e e n fo r so me time

• T

his ve ry o fte n ta ke s pla c e in po sitive o r b e nig n wa ys, b ut c a n b e mo re pro b le ma tic

• T

he I nte rne t ha s ha d a ro le in se x wo rk o ve r a lo ng pe rio d (fo r e xa mple , se e Sha d e 1996 o n a lt.se x.se rvic e s)

• T

he re a lso is a lo ng histo ry o f the I nte rne t b e ing use d in se xua l e xplo ita tio n a nd a b use : fo r e xa mple , Hug he s (1999) d e sc rib e s use s o f ne wsg ro ups to d isc uss whe re in Ba ng ko k o ffe re d “the b e st c ha nc e o f find ing g uys se lling ve ry yo ung g irls – pre -te e ns”

• L

a to ne ro e t a l. (2011; 2012) ha ve e vid e nc e d the use o f c o mpute rs a nd mo b ile te c hno lo g y in wha t lo o ks like se xua l e xplo ita tio n

ONL I NE NE T WORK S AND L ABOUR E XPL OI T AT I ON

• T

his isn’ t a who lly ne g a tive pic ture : Ho rto n’ s 2010 re se a rc h find s tha t “o n a ve ra g e , wo rke rs pe rc e ive o nline e mplo ye rs to b e slig htly fa ire r a nd mo re ho ne st tha n o ffline e mplo ye rs”

• Skriva nko va (2010: 4) a rg ue s tha t the “re a lity o f fo rc e d la b o ur is no t a sta tic o ne , b ut

a c o ntinuum o f e xpe rie nc e s a nd situa tio ns [a nd ] a c o ntinuum sho uld the re fo re b e use d to d e sc rib e the c o mple xity o f the e xplo ita tive e nviro nme nts a nd c o nc re te ind ivid ua l situa tio ns o f wo rke rs”

• Online ne two rks ha ve lo ng b e e n use d in va rio us type s o f la b o ur o n this c o ntinuum –

fro m po o r pa y/ c o nd itio ns fo und thro ug h se rvic e s like Ama zo n T urk to fra ud ule nt a d ve rts o n site s like Unive rsa l Jo b ma tc h thro ug h to the use o f so c ia l ne two rks to d ra w pe o ple into e xplo ita tio n b y inte rna tio na l c rimina l ne two rks

• Me d ic a l tria l re c ruitme nt a lso a po te ntia l fa c to r in T

HB

ONL I NE NE T WORK S AND L ABOUR E XPL OI T AT I ON

• Online ne two rks c le a rly pla y a ro le in T

HB o utwith se x wo rk – e spe c ia lly g ive n the ir wid e re a c h. Ho we ve r, mo re re se a rc h is ne e d e d to lo o k a t the ir ro le o n e xplo ita tio n c o ntinuums

• T

he re a re a lso o ppo rtunitie s to use o nline ne two rks to c ha lle ng e la b o ur e xplo ita tio n – a s c a n b e se e n, fo r e xa mple , in o nline ta rg e ting o f c o mpa nie s who a re ‘ b a d ’ e mplo ye rs

ONL I NE SPACE S

• Zo o k (2003) d isc usse s ho w the I

nte rne t a d ult ind ustry b e ne fits fro m “Dig ita l pro d uc ts, lo w b a rrie rs to e ntry, c o st d iffe re ntia ls, a nd se nsitivity to re g ula tio n [whic h] ha ve c re a te d a pe rva sive a nd c o mple x g e o g ra phy o f mo d e ls, we b ma ste rs, a nd c o nsume rs a ro und the g lo b e ” a nd a rg ue s tha t “the `spa c e o f flo ws' c a nno t b e und e rsto o d witho ut re fe re nc e to the `spa c e o f pla c e s' to whic h it c o nne c ts.”

• Gra ha m (2013) a rg ue s fo r a mo ve to “e mplo ying a lte rna te , nua nc e d a nd

spa tia lly g ro und e d wa ys o f e nvisio ning the myria d wa ys in whic h the inte rne t me d ia te s so c ia l, e c o no mic a nd po litic a l e xpe rie nc e s”

ONL I NE SPACE S

• I

a rg ue (Me nd e l a nd Rie sc h, fo rthc o ming ) tha t the re ’ s a ne e d to c o nsid e r inte ra c tio ns b e twe e n o nline spa c e s a nd o the r pla c e s

• T

his le a ve s the q ue stio n o f ho w we und e rsta nd the type s o f o nline spa c e s use d in tra ffic king , a nd ho w the y c o nne c t to o the r pla c e s

• T

his a lso le a ve s the q ue stio n o f ho w to re se a rc h the se spa c e s

• L

a to ne ro e t a l. ha ve c o nd uc te d impo rta nt re se a rc h a ro und tra ffic king a nd se x wo rk

• Ho we ve r, the re is a g ro wing b o d y o f wo rk sho wing the ne e d fo r mo re

q ua ntita tive wo rk o n o nline spa c e s to b e c o mple me nte d b y q ua lita tive re se a rc h to und e rsta nd ho w re la tio nships d e ve lo p (fo r e xa mple Bro wn, Mc Gre g o r a nd L a urie r (2013); Hine (2000); Me nd e l a nd Rie sc h (fo rthc o ming ); Pa rr (2011: Cha pte r 6))

WHAT ’ S NE W?

• Online ne two rks a ro und T

HB o ffe r b o th o ppo rtunitie s a nd c ha lle ng e s:

• Cha lle ng e s inso fa r a s the y c a n b e use d b y tra ffic ke rs a nd e xplo ita tive e mplo ye rs

to a c t a nd o rg a nise mo re e ffe c tive ly

• Oppo rtunitie s fo r re se a rc h – fo r e xa mple , mo re po ssib ilitie s fo r d a ta c o lle c tio n

a nd e ng a g e me nt

• Oppo rtunitie s fo r pub lic a c tio n – fo r e xa mple , fre e 2wo rk, Sa lva tio n Army a nd

T ra ffic king in Pe rso ns a pps, o r c ro wd so urc ing (se e L a to ne ro e t a l. 2012) a nd pub lic ising o f a c tio n (e .g . Wa lk F re e )

• I

ssue s fo r la w e nfo rc e me nt: fo r e xa mple , L a to ne ro e t a l. (2012) d isc uss pro b le ms with e q uipme nt a nd po lic y a lo ng sid e ne w spa c e s to ‘ pa tro l’

• L

a to ne ro e t a l. (2011) a rg ue tha t “T he ultima te b e ne fic ia rie s o f a ny te c hno lo g ic a l inte rve ntio n sho uld b e the vic tims a nd survivo rs o f huma n tra ffic king .” E mpha sise the impo rta nc e o f use r-c e ntric d e sig n

WHAT ’ S NE W

• So c ia l ne two rks a re c re a ting d iffe re nt o nline spa c e s – F

a c e b o o k, T witte r,

• nline c la ssifie d s e tc . o ffe r q uite d iffe re nt c o nte xts fro m o lde r ne wsg ro ups

d isc ussing se x a nd tra ffic king , a nd the ‘ d e e p we b ’ e vo lve s q uic kly

• Ag a in, the re a re b o th o ppo rtunitie s a nd c ha lle ng e s a ro und re se a rc hing the se

spa c e s, a nd find ing a ppro pria te me tho d o lo g ie s fo r und e rsta nd ing the m

• L

a to ne ro e t a l. (2011) find a spike in a d ve rts pro mo ting se x wo rke rs in o nline c la ssifie d s d uring the 2011 Supe rb o wl. Wo rds a sso c ia te d with this a re sug g e stive

• f tra ffic king b ut (a s L

a to ne ro e t a l. a c kno wle d g e ) unc e rta inty re ma ins

• Ac c e ss to o nline ne two rks is e xpa nd ing , while still une ve n. I

mpo rta nt to think a b o ut une ve n g e o g ra phie s o f a c c e ss, risk a nd o ppo rtunity.

WHAT ’ S NE W?

• F
• r L

a to ne ro (2012: iv) “the rise o f mo b ile te c hno lo g y ma y fund a me nta lly tra nsfo rm the tra ffic king la ndsc a pe . No o the r c o mmunic a tio n te c hno lo g y in histo ry, inc lud ing the I nte rne t, ha s b e e n a d o pte d so ra pid ly a ro und the wo rld…Mo b ile ’ s a b ility to fa c ilita te re a l-time c o mmunic a tio n a nd c o o rd ina tio n, unb o und b y physic a l lo c a tio n, is a lso b e ing e xplo ite d b y tra ffic ke rs to e xte nd the re a c h o f the ir illic it a c tivitie s. T ra ffic ke rs a re a b le to re c ruit, a d ve rtise , o rg a nize , a nd c o mmunic a te prima rily—o r e ve n e xc lusive ly—via mo b ile pho ne ”

• Also q ue stio ns a b o ut ho w mo b ile te c hno lo g ie s a re use d to o ve rla y o r

a ug me nt physic a l lo c a tio ns (e .g . Bro wn e t a l. 2013) a nd a b o ut spa tia l va ria tio ns in a c c e ss (Gra ha m 2013)

• Pla usib le tha t c ha ng ing a ttitud e s to surve illa nc e a nd e nc ryptio n ma y pro ve

sig nific a nt

WHAT T HE L I T E RAT URE CURRE NT L Y T E L L S US

• A lo ng histo ry o f c o mpute rs b e ing use d fo r purpo se s re la te d to c rime , se x

a nd e xplo ita tio n (a nd to c ha lle ng e e xplo ita tio n)

• Online ne two rks d o pla y a ro le in tra ffic king , mo st pub lic ly in a d ve rtising the

‘ se rvic e s’ o f tra ffic ke d pe o ple

• T

he re ha ve b e e n sig nific a nt c ha ng e s in the o nline ne two rks a nd spa c e s invo lve d , in b re a d th o f a c c e ss, a nd po te ntia lly in the risks a nd o ppo rtunitie s he re

• Diffe re nt type s o f spa c e s a re c o nstruc te d a nd inte rre la te in o rd e r to e na b le

a nd c ha lle ng e tra ffic king a nd e xplo ita tio n

WHAT T HE L I T E RAT URE CURRE NT L Y T E L L S US

• So me initia l re se a rc h sug g e sts thing s a re ha ppe ning a t a sig nific a nt sc a le
• Artic le s ha ve a ppe a re d in la w, c rimino lo g y a nd c o mputing a nd so c ie ty

jo urna ls a ro und ne w te c hno lo g ie s a nd c yb e rc rime , inc lud ing c hild po rno g ra phy (Co he n-Alma g o r 2013, K ie rke g a a rd 2008) a nd c e nso rship (E d wa rd s, 2009)

• Ma rk L

a to ne ro e t a l. ha ve pub lishe d two striking re po rts (Human T raffic king Online : T he Ro le o f S

• c ial Me dia and Online Classifie ds, 2011 a nd T

he Rise o f Mo b ile and the Diffusio n o f T e c hno lo g y-F ac ilitate d T raffic king , 2012)

GAPS I N WHAT WE K NOW

• A ne e d fo r mo re ‘ e mpiric a lly b a se d ra the r tha n id e o lo g ic a lly d rive n’

re se a rc h o n tra ffic king (Zha ng 2009: 193). Ro b ust e mpiric a l re se a rc h to inve stig a te ho w inte rne t te c hno lo g ie s a nd dig ita l ne two rks (inc luding so c ia l ne two rking site s a nd o nline c la ssifie d we b site s) a re e na b ling tra ffic ke rs to

• pe ra te with g re a te r e ffic ie nc y a nd a no nymity a c ro ss g e o g ra phic a l b o rd e rs
• T

his ta ke s pla c e b o th in re c ruitme nt a nd in se lling se rvic e s pro vid e d b y tra ffic ke d pe o ple

• Be ne fits o f b o th q ua lita tive a nd q ua ntita tive re se a rc h
• Ne e d wo rk o n the po te ntia l o f o nline ne two rks to c ha lle ng e e xplo ita tio n a nd

tra ffic king a nd to e nha nc e the sa fe ty o f pe o ple in vulne ra b le po sitio ns

• Ne e d furthe r re se a rc h o n ho w to c o nc e ptua lise the o nline spa c e s use d in

tra ffic king a nd e xplo ita tio n

RE F E RE NCE S

• boyd d m, E

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• Br
• wn, B., Mc Gr

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• Ca r

te r , D. a nd Ka tz, A. 1996. Co mpute r Crime : An E

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• E

dwa rds L . 2009. ‘ Po rno g ra phy, c e nso rship a nd the inte rne t’ . I

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• Hor

ton J. 2011. ‘ T

he c o nd itio n o f the T urking c la ss: Are o nline e mplo ye rs fa ir a nd ho ne st? ’ . E c o no mic s L e tte rs (111: 1)

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• Kie r

ke gaar d S. 2008. ‘ Cyb e ring , o nline g ro o ming a nd a g e pla y’ . Co mpute r L

a w & Se c urity Re vie w. 24(1): 41–55. http:/ / d x.d o i.o rg / 10.1016/ j.c lsr.2007.11.004

• L

a tone r

• M., e t a l. 2011. Human T

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• s Ang e le s: USC.

http:/ / www.issue la b .o rg / re so urc e / huma n_tra ffic king _o nline _the _ro le _o f_so c ia l_me d ia _a nd _o nline _c la ssifie d s

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a tone r

• , M., e t a l. 2012. T

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• wards I

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