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D-USYS • M. Brink • Environmental Impacts - Noise Part 4 Slide 1

[701-0662-00 L] Environmental Impacts, Threshold Levels and Health Effects Lecture 10: Noise Part 4 (06.05.2020)

Mark Brink

ETH Zürich D-USYS

Homepage:

http://www.noise.ethz.ch/ei/

D-USYS • M. Brink • Environmental Impacts - Noise Part 4 Slide 2

• Health effects of noise (overview)
• Types of health effects (auditory vs. non-auditory)
• DALYs (Disability Adjusted Life Years) lost due to noise
• Exposure assessment in environmental epidemiology
• Exposure-response relationships
• Noise annoyance
• Moderator variables
• Setting of noise exposure limits based on annoyance

Topics covered in the previous lecture

D-USYS • M. Brink • Environmental Impacts - Noise Part 4 Slide 3

Lecture overview for today

► Noise annoyance (cont'd)

► SiRENE study ► Example: aircraft noise annoyance

► Noise contours ► Differences in annoyance as a function of time of day ► Physiological activations due to noise ► Stress model of noise, Pathogenetic pathways ► Noise induced sleep disturbances

► What is sleep?

D-USYS • M. Brink • Environmental Impacts - Noise Part 4 Slide 4

%HA as a function of Lden (SiRENE study, 2014-2015)

Source: Brink et al. (2019), Environment International, 125, 277-290

D-USYS • M. Brink • Environmental Impacts - Noise Part 4 Slide 5

▪ Environmental impacts may be the fundamental constraint on air transportation growth in the 21st century (aside from fuel shortage in

the future)

▪ Among the environmental impacts, noise, air pollution, and air transport induced climate change are the top issues to address ▪ The current situation is that aircraft noise is the single most significant local objection to airport expansion and operation London Frankfurt Zurich

Aircraft noise annoyance

D-USYS • M. Brink • Environmental Impacts - Noise Part 4 Slide 6

Noise Water Quality Air Quality

Number of airports Most serious problem currently Most serious problem in the future

Compatibility with nearby land uses None applicable Wetlands

United States General Accounting Office. (2000). Aviation and the environment. Airport Operations and Future Growth Present Environmental Challenges, from http://transource.org/shared_files/GAO9-8-00.pdf

How relevant is the noise problem for Airports?

D-USYS • M. Brink • Environmental Impacts - Noise Part 4 Slide 7

5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 50 53 56 59 62 65 68

Leq, 6-22 Uhr in dB(A) %HA

1991 2001

Aircraft noise annoyance over the years

D-USYS • M. Brink • Environmental Impacts - Noise Part 4 Slide 8

▪ Growing number of flights ▪ Decreasing sound pressure level per single flight ▪ Fewer breaks across the day, more flights within shoulder hours ▪ Noise contours around airports are actually shrinking!

Development of aircraft operations in Europe in the last decades

D-USYS • M. Brink • Environmental Impacts - Noise Part 4 Slide 9

1 zus. Aufwachreaktion pro Tag 1 zus. Aufwachreaktion pro 2 Tage

N

Source: http://www.fluglaerm-frankfurt.de/349.0.html

Leq=57 dB(A) during day (06-22h) Leq=60 dB(A) during day (06-22h) Leq=65 dB(A) during day (06-22h)

What is a noise contour?

Zurich Airport

D-USYS • M. Brink • Environmental Impacts - Noise Part 4 Slide 10

179'163 193'909 204'309 214'470 216'313 227'615 228'994 236'977 238'232 251'209 271'147 281'808 296'379 314'714 299'344 275'999 262'586 259'091 258'790 252'892 259'473 265'735 253'477

1987: 1988: 1989: 1990: 1991: 1992: 1993: 1994: 1995: 1996: 1997: 1998: 1999: 2000: 2001: 2002: 2003: 2004: 2005: 2006: 2007: 2008: 2009:

150‘000 # of Flights 350‘000

Source: Flughafen Zürich AG, 2010

Development of the 60 dB-contour (Leq 06-22h)... ...caused by aircraft operations since 1987 at Zurich Airport

D-USYS • M. Brink • Environmental Impacts - Noise Part 4 Slide 11

40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010

Year of study Level Ldn [dB(A)]

Zürich (2001/2003) Frankfurt (2005)

Exposure level to get 25% highly annoyed (HA) Aircraft noise annoyance increased over the past decades!

D-USYS • M. Brink • Environmental Impacts - Noise Part 4 Slide 12

LAE, single plane = 108 dB → LAeq,16h = 60 dB LAE, single plane = 98 dB → LAeq,16h = 60 dB LAE, single plane = 88 dB → LAeq,16h = 60 dB

1 Event 10 Events 100 Events

1970 technology 1990 technology todays technology

Blessings and burdens of quieter aircraft...

D-USYS • M. Brink • Environmental Impacts - Noise Part 4 Slide 13

▪ As quieter aircraft have been phased in, the boundaries of airport noise contours have shrunk ▪ People may move into these areas that were previously impacted by noise ▪ In the future, as the number of aircraft operations increases, the areas impacted by noise may expand again, thus again increasing the number of people affected

Potential effects of technological advancement

(basically: quieter aircraft)

D-USYS • M. Brink • Environmental Impacts - Noise Part 4 Slide 14

Change effect: "Overshoot" reactions after exposure changes

Residents south of Zurich Airport, 2003, 2004

D-USYS • M. Brink • Environmental Impacts - Noise Part 4 Slide 15

Zurich Airport: Change of exposure between 2001 and 2003

D-USYS • M. Brink • Environmental Impacts - Noise Part 4 Slide 16

40 45 50 55 60 65 70 00-01 01-02 02-03 03-04 04-05 05-06 06-07 07-08 08-09 09-10 10-11 11-12 12-13 13-14 14-15 15-16 16-17 17-18 18-19 19-20 20-21 21-22 22-23 23-24

1h-Leq in dB(A)

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60%

% stark Belästigte Osten (fern)

Communities to the East

The "Change effect"

Swiss Noise Study 2000, Survey 2001

D-USYS • M. Brink • Environmental Impacts - Noise Part 4 Slide 17

40 45 50 55 60 65 70 00-01 01-02 02-03 03-04 04-05 05-06 06-07 07-08 08-09 09-10 10-11 11-12 12-13 13-14 14-15 15-16 16-17 17-18 18-19 19-20 20-21 21-22 22-23 23-24

1h-Leq in dB(A)

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60%

% stark Belästigte

Osten (fern)

40 45 50 55 60 65 70 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4

Norden

Gemeinden im Osten Communities to the North

The "Change effect"

Swiss Noise Study 2000, Survey 2003

D-USYS • M. Brink • Environmental Impacts - Noise Part 4 Slide 18

Time

Exposure (increase) Exposure (decrease) Annoyance Annoyance

up to 10 years

The "Change effect", principle

D-USYS • M. Brink • Environmental Impacts - Noise Part 4 Slide 19

Percent HA (%HA) as a function of change

Residents near Zurich Airport, Surveys 2001 and 2003 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70

Lden [dB(A)] Percent

No change

Year 2003, morning model

5 dB decrease 5 dB increase Average

D-USYS • M. Brink • Environmental Impacts - Noise Part 4 Slide 20

• 12 dB
• 10 dB
• 8 dB
• 6 dB
• 4 dB
• 2 dB

0 dB 2 dB 4 dB 6 dB 8 dB 10 dB 12 dB 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23

Time of day Penalty [dB]

Bonus Malus

0 – 24 hrs-Mean = 0dB

Differences in annoyance as a function of time of day

(Zurich 2001, Aircraft noise annoyance)

D-USYS • M. Brink • Environmental Impacts - Noise Part 4 Slide 21

Physiological activations due to noise

D-USYS • M. Brink • Environmental Impacts - Noise Part 4 Slide 22

Hypothalamus Pituitary gland Adrenal glands Release of Catecholamines Adrenocorticotropic hormone Sympathetic nervous system Changes in the EEG (Awakenings)

Noise-Stressors

Heart rate increase Movements

Physiological activations (due to noise)

Physiological systems involved

Cortisol release

D-USYS • M. Brink • Environmental Impacts - Noise Part 4 Slide 23

Involves higher-level processes (cognition, emotion)

• autonomic nervous system
• reaction cascade
• "basic" responses

"direct pathway" "indirect pathway"

Noise exposure

Biochemical / neuronal stress reactions Psychological stress responses

Stress model of non-auditory effects of noise

D-USYS • M. Brink • Environmental Impacts - Noise Part 4 Slide 24

Stressor

primary appraisal

relevant? threatening? "instrumental"

• problem-oriented
• modify environment
• r change behavior
• seeking advice...

"palliative"

• perception-oriented
• change perceptions
• comforting cognitions
• denial/escapism

secondary appraisal

Evaluation of possibilities to cope with stressor Perceived control

coping

Stress and coping

Transactional model of stress and coping (Lazarus & Folkman 1984)

D-USYS • M. Brink • Environmental Impacts - Noise Part 4 Slide 25

• wealthy people buying themselves out of noisy neighborhoods
• when the bedroom faces a busy road, people sleep with closed

windows / change bedroom

• people may take drugs and medication in order to sleep
• people may change their (sleeping) habits
• people may use earplugs
• people may seek (medical) advice
• ...

►

Coping can be 'adaptive' or 'maladaptive'

►

Unresolved question: What is the relationship between certain coping behaviors and long-term outcomes?

Examples of noise coping behaviors

D-USYS • M. Brink • Environmental Impacts - Noise Part 4 Slide 26

► Noise sensitivity

• Evidence of a strong link between noise sensitivity and annoyance
• (Self reported) noise sensitivity does not well predict differences in

physiological reactions to sound

► Individual differences & genetic predispositions

• e.g. Differences in „Locus of control“
• Genetic component of noise sensitivity
• Evidence of genetic predispositions playing a role in inter-individual

differences in sleep regulation and sleep depth

► Coping behavior

• Coping is a natural (i.e. normal) response to stressors
• Coping strategies may be beneficial or detrimental to health

Important moderating and mediating factors

(List is incomplete...)

D-USYS • M. Brink • Environmental Impacts - Noise Part 4 Slide 27

coping behavior (examples) Noise exposure Psychological stress responses Biochemical/neuronal stress reactions seeking relief through drug consumption changing sleeping habits closing bedroom windows Reduced indoor air quality (temp. CO2 level...) Reduced sleep amount Addictive diseases & aftereffects moving Hypertension Diabetes mellitus Dislipo- proteinemia Appraisal Long term effects on immune system HPA-axis Sympatico- adrenal axis Arteriosclerosis Depression? Glucocorticoid secretion Myocardial infarction Stroke ... relaed Health problems Catecholamine secretion Susceptibility for cancer? chronic chronic Changes in sleep structure (Awakenings Arousals Delayed sleep onset etc.) Macro- structural effects on sleep Impaired well-being Reduction of performance Increased Sleepiness Increased accident risk etc. Noise sensitivity Genetic factors 2ndary effects Obesity long term short term

Pathogenetic pathways

D-USYS • M. Brink • Environmental Impacts - Noise Part 4 Slide 28

► 'Direct' physiologic explanations

• development of cardiovascular diseases as a consequence of

repeated noise-induced autonomic responses (especially cardiovascular arousals)

• → Dysregulation of / difficulty in keeping homeostasis
• Prevention of blood pressure dipping in the night
• Elevation of critical "body fluids" that are characteristic for stress

responses: e.g. coagulation factors, glucose, cholesterol, triglycerides etc. (and of course "stress" hormones)

Potential pathogenetic pathways (Part 1)

D-USYS • M. Brink • Environmental Impacts - Noise Part 4 Slide 29

► Chronic noise-induced partial sleep loss

Sleep loss plays a role in the epidemics of:

• Obesity (negative association between BMI and sleep duration)
• Diabetes (suppression of deep sleep leads to impaired glucose

tolerance)

• Cardiovascular diseases
• Mortality (U-shaped relationship)

Possible initial reasons for sleep loss:

• reduction of total sleep time or sleep depth due to noise intrusions
• side-effect of certain coping styles (e.g. going to bed late)

► Open question: Do noise exposures in ecological settings truly have the potential to induce amounts of sleep loss in a way, that these dramatic effects unfold?

Potential pathogenetic pathways (Part 2)

D-USYS • M. Brink • Environmental Impacts - Noise Part 4 Slide 30

► Psychological explanations I: Effects of coping strategies

• Emergence of poor health practices / escapism:

e.g. increased alcohol consumption, sleep medication, drug use, smoking etc...

• Changing sleeping habits: - close bedroom window → air quality?
• reduce time in bed

→ sleep deprivation?

Potential pathogenetic pathways (Part 3)

D-USYS • M. Brink • Environmental Impacts - Noise Part 4 Slide 31

► Psychological explanations II: other effects

Development of certain expectancies or beliefs

• expectancies may foster selective attention → vicious circles
• "nocebo" effect/response (lat. "It will harm")

Negative appraisal effects ("there is nothing I can do about the noise")

• may foster development of depressive symptoms
• "learned helplessness"
• Typical accompaniment: activation of HPA axis with increased cortisol

release Noise exposure reduces the frequency and quality of social interactions → "social support" is an important health modifier

Potential pathogenetic pathways (Part 4)

D-USYS • M. Brink • Environmental Impacts - Noise Part 4 Slide 32

Sleep disturbances

Annoyance Sleep disturbances Cardiovascular diseases Other long term outcomes Performance & Behavior

D-USYS • M. Brink • Environmental Impacts - Noise Part 4 Slide 33

▪ What is sleep? ▪ Effects of noise on sleep

▪ What happens if sleep is disturbed? ▪ Classification of noise effects on sleep ▪ Types of studies to investigate noise effects on sleep

▪ Research methods

▪ Polysomnography (PSG) ▪ Actimetry (recording of body movements) ▪ Seismosomnography (SSG)

▪ Brief overview over recent studies and important findings

▪ Swiss noise study 2000 ▪ Effect of slope of rise of noise events; effects of noise at different times of day ▪ Awakening probability for different noise sources - empirical findings

▪ Practical applications ▪ Countermeasures

Sleep disturbances due to noise

Overview

D-USYS • M. Brink • Environmental Impacts - Noise Part 4 Slide 34

S4 S3 S2 S1 wake REM Sleep profile

The three "cardinal states of consciousness":

non-REM sleep wake REM-sleep

Biological

• cillator

Sleep ≠ Rest

non-REM

What is sleep?

D-USYS • M. Brink • Environmental Impacts - Noise Part 4 Slide 35

Undisturbed normal sleep →

Sleep Profiles

Disturbed sleep →

Source: Muzet, A. (2007). Environmental noise, sleep and health. Sleep Medicine Reviews, 11(2), 135-142.

D-USYS • M. Brink • Environmental Impacts - Noise Part 4 Slide 36

Obesity Concentration decreased Increased mortality Increased morbidity Emotional instability Drowsiness Driving ability reduced Memory functions impaired Increased risk behavior etc... What happens if sleep is reduced or disturbed?

D-USYS • M. Brink • Environmental Impacts - Noise Part 4 Slide 37

Interruption of sleep process internal

sensorial neuronal psychophysiological

external

• acoustic stimuli
• thermal stimuli
• bright light
• ...

Sleep disturbances: many reasons, one effect...

D-USYS • M. Brink • Environmental Impacts - Noise Part 4 Slide 38

Autonomic Arousal Sleep Stage Change

• r short EEG-Arousal

Short EEG Awakening (> 15s) Long Awakening (> 1 min) with Regaining of Consciousness

Simplified scheme of the body's reaction to external stimuli

• Questionnaire in

the morning

• Push button
• Actimetry
• PSG
• PSG
• (Actimetry)
• PSG
• ECG (RR

measurements, Heart rate)

• Actimetry

Thalamo-cortical gating

~ 1-3 / night ~ 20-30 / night ~ 100 / night

stimulation of ARAS by internal or external stimuli

D-USYS • M. Brink • Environmental Impacts - Noise Part 4 Slide 39

Sleep disturbances Reactions to the noise

Situational Individual Acoustic characteristics

• Age, Gender
• Noise sensitivity...
• Sound pressure level
• Duration, Slope of rise etc.
• Current sleep stage
• Time since sleep onset etc.
• Awakenings, Arousals
• Body movements
• Blood pressure increases, etc...
• Quantitative: Reduction of sleeping time, Increased awakenings
• Qualitative: Reduction of slow wave sleep, Reduction of REM-Sleep...

Sleep disturbances due to noise: General framework

D-USYS • M. Brink • Environmental Impacts - Noise Part 4 Slide 40

Tertiary effects

Long term effects (e.g. hypertension)

Primary effects

Acute effects of noise (arousals, awakenings)

Secondary effects

Subsequent effects during next day (e.g. fatigue)

PSG recordings Cognitve performance tests, e.g. Serial reaction time task (SRT) Epidemiologcial studies

Measurement of effects (examples):

NOISE

?

Classification of environmental noise effects on sleep

D-USYS • M. Brink • Environmental Impacts - Noise Part 4 Slide 41

Immediate effects related to one single event

Single event

characterizable by e.g.

LA,max ‘Noise’ during nighttime

characterizable by e.g.

• LA,eq 8h
• Number of events
• etc.

Effects as a function of total exposure per night

• Cortical arousals, awakenings
• Body movements
• Cardiovascular arousals
• Sleep stage changes

Event-related: global:

• Total sleep time
• Number of awakenings
• Self-assessed sleep quality
• Sleepiness, etc...
• Secreted stress hormones...

Event-related vs global analysis of sleep disturbances

D-USYS • M. Brink • Environmental Impacts - Noise Part 4 Slide 42

• Controlled laboratory experiments
• Field studies / Field experiments

Acute reactions Individual noise events

‘Subjective’ methods: ▪ Questionnaires (« how many times did you wake up? ») ▪ Signaled awakenings (e.g. press a marker button) Physiological ‘objective’ methods: ▪ Polysomnography (PSG) ▪ Actimetry (Recording of body movements) ▪ Seismosomnography (SSG)

Study types and methods

D-USYS • M. Brink • Environmental Impacts - Noise Part 4 Slide 43

Actimetry, Field study PSG, Field study PSG, laboratory experiment Instrumentation (Field study)