Classification & Phylogeny April 2013 www.njctl.org Slide 3 / - - PDF document

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BIOLOGY Classification & Phylogeny

www.njctl.org April 2013

Slide 3 / 92 Vocabulary

Click on each word below to go to the definition. bilateral symmetry binomial nomenclature cladogram class coelomate cotyledon dicot domain acoelomate cladistic analysis endothermic family genus gymnosperm i n v e r t e b r a t e kingdom heterotroph monocot

• rder

phloem angiosperm phototroph phylogenetic tree phylogeny phylum psuedocoelomate radial symmetry species epithet taxa vertebrate xylem

Slide 4 / 92 Classification & Phylogeny Topics

· Classification & Naming · Kingdom Plantae

Click on the topic to go to that section

· Kingdom Animalia · Domains & Kingdoms · Phylogeny & Cladistics

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Classification & Naming

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Classification is a method of

• rganizing species into groups called
• taxa. There are 8 taxa in the modern

system of classification.

Classification

This modern system began with the work of Carolus Linnaeus in 1735. Linnaeus based his classification of species solely on shared characteristics. Scientists have refined this system using molecular homologies and DNA evidence.

Slide 7 / 92 The Bigger Picture

Think about classification in this way.... the country is divided into states, states into counties, counties into towns, towns into streets, and streets into individual houses. People living in the same house have more in common than people on the same street. People on the same street have more in common than people in the same town. People in the same town have more in common than people in the same county. People in the same county have more in common than people in the same state. People in the same state have more in common that people in the same country.

Slide 8 / 92 The Big Picture

person house street town county state country Less in Common More in Common Continent

Slide 9 / 92 The Classification System

person house street town county state country Less in Common More in Common Domain Kingdom Phylum Class Continent Order Genus Family Species

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Species to Domain

In other words.... Organisms of the same species have more in common than organisms

• f the same genus.

Organisms of the same genus have more in common than organisms

• f the same family.

Organisms of the same family have more in common than organisms

• f the same order.

Organisms of the same order have more in common than organisms of the same class. Organisms of the same class have more in common than organisms of the phylum. Organisms of the same phylum have more in common than organisms

• f the same kingdom.

Organisms of the same kingdom have more in common than organisms

• f the same domain.

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1 Which of these groupings has the most in common? A

• rder

B class

C phylum D kingdom

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2 Which of these groupings has the least in common? A

• rder

B class

C phylum D kingdom

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3 Below is the biological classification of humans in order from least in common to most in common. Identify the highlighted taxa.

A phylum, order B family, genus C phylum, speices D kingdom, family

Eukarya Animalia Chordata Mammalia Primates Hominidae Homo Homo sapiens

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4 Below is the biological classification of the Asian elephant in order from least in common to most in common. Identify the highlighted taxa.

A phylum, order B family, genus C class, speices D phylum, genus

Eukarya Animalia Chordata Mammalia Proboscidea Elephantidae Elephas Elephas maximus

Slide 15 / 92 We are Homo sapiens

Why are we given this special name?

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Binomial nomenclature is the formal system of naming a species. Each species' name includes the organism's genus and a species epithet to identify it.

Binomial Nomenclature Genus species epithet Common Name

dog Canis familiaris Wolf Canis lupis Sugar Maple Tree Acer sacchaum Human __________ __________

Slide 17 / 92 Rules for Naming Homo sapiens

• 1. The first letter of the genus is always capitalized.
• 2. The first letter of the species epithet is never

capitalized.

• 3. The whole name is italicized.

Both the genus and species epithet together are referred to as the name of the species. We are never just called sapiens.

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A Ursus Americanus B Americanus ursus C Ursus americanus D Ursus americanus E Americanus Ursus 5The genus for the American black bears is ursus and the epithet is americanus. Which of the following is the proper species name of American black bears?

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6The species name for a tiger is Panthera tigris. What is a tiger's genus? A Panthera

B tigris

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Phylogeny & Cladistics

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Scientists can further classify a species based on its probable evolutionary

• history. A phylogeny is a graphic

method of illustrating the evolutionary relationships between species.

Phylogeny

Example of a Mammalian Phylogeny

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Phylogenetic trees are used to show relatedness among

• rganisms. Branches separate organisms based on traits they have

in common.

Phylogenetic Trees

Phylogenetic trees are constantly changing to fit in the new information that scientists learn. Biologists use two methods to place organisms on the phylogenetic tree:

• morphological similarities (similarities in body structure and

embryonic development)

• molecular similarities (similarities in DNA, RNA, and proteins)

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7Which of the following is NOT used to create a phylogenetic tree? A DNA comparison B Molecular homologies C Acquired characteristics D Comparative embryology

Slide 24 / 92 Cladistics

One of the tools used to create a phylogeny is cladistic analysis. A cladogram is a special type of phylogenetic tree that uses derived traits to determine which species are most closely related.

Common Ancestor Turtle hair carnivore horse wolf leopard retractable claws ability to purr domestic cat

Slide 25 / 92 Another Way to Show It

Turtle Horse Wolf Common Ancestor Hair Carnivour Retractable Claws Ability to purr Leopard Domestic Cat

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Turtle Horse Wolf Common Ancestor Hair Carnivour Retractable Claws Ability to purr Leopard Domestic Cat

Clade

The closer together two

• rganisms are on the

cladogram, the more shared traits they have in common, therefore the more related they are.

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Domains & Kingdoms

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In a phylogenetic tree of all life on Earth, the first branches represent the 3 domains of the modern classification system. These 3 domains are: Domain Bacteria Domain Archaea Domain Eukarya

Domains

Common Ancestor Bacteria Eukarya Archaea

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Domain Bacteria consists of prokaryotes and includes the bacteria most people are familiar with including both the the beneficial bacteria used to make yogurt as well as disease causing organisms such as E.coli O157:H7

Domain Bacteria

Domain Bacteria has only one kingdom,

• Eubacteria. Species in this kingdom are

assigned to more discrete taxa based on their cell structures, methods of cellular metabolism, and other factors.

Common Ancestor Bacteria Eukarya Archaea Eubacteria

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Domain Archaea is also contains only prokaryotes. These prokaryotes share characteristics with both bacteria and

• eukaryotes. They differ from bacteria by a difference in their

rRNA base sequence and in the structure of their plasma membrane.

Domain Archaea

Domain Archaea contains organisms which live in places on Earth considered too volatile for other organisms such as very hot or salty environments.

Common Ancestor Bacteria Eukarya Archaea Archaebacteria

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Domain Eukarya is made up of eukaryotes. They can be unicellular or multicellular. The cells all have a membrane bound nucleus and various organelles. This domain is broken into 4 kingdoms:

• Protista
• Fungi
• Plantae
• Animalia

Domain Eukarya

Common Ancestor Bacteria Eukarya Archaea Plantae Fungi Animalia Protista

Slide 34 / 92 Major Differences Between Domains

Characteristic Bacteria Archaea Eukarya Unicellular Yes Yes Some species Membrane lipids Phospholipids, unbranched Different types, branched Phospholipids, unbranched Cell Wall Yes with peptidoglycan Yes without peptidoglycan Some species Nuclear Envelope No No Yes Membrane-bound

• rganelles

No No Yes

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10 Which domain do Homo sapiens belong to? A Bacteria

B

Eukarya C Archaea

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11What Domain has the most in common with LUCA? A Bacteria

B

Eukarya C Archaea

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12 Which domain has 4 kingdoms? A Bacteria

B

Eukarya C Archaea

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Like all eukaryotes, protists contain organelles and have a true nucleus. Most are unicellular, but some (like algae) are multicellular. Often they create colonies. Some are heterotrophs (getting energy from organic compounds) and some are phototrophs (getting energy from the sun).

Kingdom Protista

plasmodium amoeba slime mold

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Fungi are eukaryotic and nearly all fungi are multicellular. They have cell walls that contain chitin. Fungi are heterotrophs; they cannot make their own food as they lack chloroplasts. Species in this kingdom are assigned to phyla based on their sexual reproductive structures.

Kingdom Fungi

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Plants are multicellular, photosynthetic eukaryotes. Members of the Plantae kingdom are further grouped based on how they carry water: vascular and non- vascular. There are 3 non-vascular phyla and 9 vascular phyla.

Kingdom Plantae

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Animals are eukaryotic, multicellular heterotrophs. There are 36 recognized animal phyla, of which 9 contain the vast majority of described, existing species. Animals are grouped into phyla based on the presence or absence

• f certain structures.

Kingdom Animalia

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13Which kingdom(s) do Homo sapiens belong to? A Protists B Plantae C Fungi D Animalia E all of the above

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14Which Kingdom(s) have multicellular species? A Protists B Plantae C Fungi D Animalia E all of the above

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15Which Kingdom(s) are exclusively autotrophic? A Protists B Plantae C Fungi D Animalia E all of the above

Slide 45 / 92 Last Universal Common Ancestor

We're again bought back to the idea of LUCA and that all living things have a common starting point. Let's take another look at the phylogeny that we have drawn so far.

Common Ancestor Bacteria Eukarya Archaea Archaebacteria Plantae Fungi Animalia Protista Eubacteria

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Kingdom Plantae

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The plant kingdom is broken down into 12 phyla, based on the presence or absence of a vascular system, the presence/absence of seeds, and the presence/absence of flowers.

Plant Phyla

3 Non-Vascular Phyla

• liverworts
• mosses
• hornworts

4 Vascular/Non-Seeded Phyla

• whisk ferns
• club mosses
• horsetails
• ferns

4 Vascular/Seeded Phyla

• conifers
• cycads
• Ginko biloba
• Gnetophyta

1 Vascular/Seeded/Flowering Phyla

• all flowering plants

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The vascular plants contain specialized tissues, the xylem and the phloem for moving water and nutrients throughout the plant, much like the human circulatory system.

Vascular Plants

Aquatic plants Vascular plants Non-vascular plants

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The xylem is mainly responsible for transporting water up from the roots. The phloem transports sugars (sap) from the leaves to parts of the plant that do not undergo photosynthesis such as the branches and roots.

Vascular Tissues

xylem in a stem

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In some vascular plants, fertilization results in the development of a seed. Seeds protect the plant embryo until conditions are right for development.

Seeded Plants

Vascular plants Seeded plants Non-seeded plants Angiosperm Gymnosperm

Seeded, non-flowering plants are called gymnosperms. Flowering plants are called angiosperms.

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Conifers

Gymnosperms vs. Angiosperms

Deciduous Trees

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Angiosperms

Seeded Plants Angiosperm Gymnosperm Monocot Dicot

The angiosperms are broken down into 2 classes, the monocots and the dicots. Angiosperms have dominated the land for over 100 million years and there are about 250,000 known species. Most of our foods come from a few hundred domesticated species of flowering plants. Roughly 70% of angiosperms are polyploid.

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Monocots and Dicots

Monocot Dicot The term monocot and dicot refer to the first leaves that appear

• n the embryo of the plant, the cotyledon.

Monocot has

• ne cotyledon

Dicot has two cotyledons

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Examples of Dicots

Fruit Trees Grape Vines Magnolia Tree Pumpkin Patch

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Monocot Seed Dicot Seed seed coat seed coat endosperm endosperm

• ne

cotyledon two cotyledons embryo embryo

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Monocots have parallel leaf veins

Leaf Veins

while dicots have branched leaf veins

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The vascular tissue which transports water and nutrients up the stem of the plant has different arrangements in monocots and dicots.

Stem Vascular Bundles

Monocots have bundles in complex arrangements Dicots have vascular bundles in a ring

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16A dicot has one cotyledon. True False

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18This is the stem of a dicot. True False

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The floral petals on each plant differ in total number. Monocots have petals in multiples of three, while dicots have petals in multiples of four or five.

Flower Petal Arrangements

Multiple of 3 Monocot Multiple of 4 or 5 Dicot

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Monocots have a fibrous root system,

Roots

while dicots typically have one taproot.

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19Is this flower a monocot? Yes No

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20This flower is a monocot. True False

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Plants are further classified into families, orders, genus, and species based on additional adaptations and derived characteristics such as modified leaves, modified stems, and modified roots.

Continuing Classification

modified root modified stem modified leaf

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Phylogeny Examples: Plantae

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Kingdom Animalia

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The animal kingdom probably evolved during the Cambrian period, 540 million years ago. The earliest animal fossils are from the late Precambrian period, 600 million years ago.

The Original Ancestral Animal

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At the beginning of the Paleozoic era, multicellular animals underwent an 'explosion' in diversity known as the 'Cambrian explosion'. This artist's rendering, based on fossil evidence, of some of the bizarre life forms, now extinct, that emerged during this time.

The Cambrian Explosion

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All animal body plans that exist today can be traced back with geologic and fossil data to ancestors of this time period. Over time natural selection, for one reason or another, favored some traits over

• thers and today we are

left with a small percentage of the body plans that existed in the Cambrian period.

The Cambrian Explosion

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Phyla of the Animal Kingdom

The animal kingdoms can be broken down into 36 phyla based

• n body symmetry and body cavities.

Some of these phyla include:

Animalia Sponges Arthropods Chordates Jellyfish Flatworms Echinoderms Segmented Worms Mollusks Round Worms

• Segmented Worms
• Arthropods
• Echinoderms
• Chordates
• Sponges
• Jellyfish
• Flatworms
• Round Worms
• Mollusks

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Radial Symmetry is a common feature of simple animals. Radially symmetrical animals have all body parts radiating out from the center of the body.

Symmetry

Animal bodies can either have radial symmetry or bilateral symmetry. Bilateral Symmetry is more commonly found in complex animals. Bilateral animals show a right and left side

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22Which of the following animals is radially symmetrical?

A alligator B flatworm C jellyfish D lobster

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23A human has which type of symmetry? A radial symmetry B bilateral symmetry

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A body cavity is a fluid-filled space that lies between the digestive tract and the body. There are 3 types of body cavities among animals. Acoelomates, such as the flatworm, have no body cavity. Pseudocoelomates, such as the roundworm, have a partially- lined body cavity. Coelomates, such as the earthworm, have a fully-lined body cavity.

Body Cavities

Slide 78 / 92 Acoelomates

Planarian Acoelomates have only a digestive cavity with no lining.

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Pseudocoelomates

Pseudocoelomates have a partially lined body cavity with loosely holds the animals

• rgans in place.

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Coelomates

Coelomates have a fully lined body cavity called a coelom which holds the animals

• rgans in place.

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24 Humans have which type of body plan?

A symmetrical acoelomate B symmetrical coelomate C bilateral psuedocoelomate D bilateral coelomate

Slide 82 / 92 Phylum: Chordata

Humans belong to the phylum chordata. All chordates have a dorsal nerve cord and a post-anal tail at some time in their development. In humans, this dorsal nerve cord has evolved into the central nervous system (the brain and spinal cord).

Slide 83 / 92 Phylogeny Examples: Chordata Slide 84 / 92

The phylum chordata contains the subphylum vertebrata, animals with a backbone. Most animals on Earth today are invertebrates (without a vertebral column). Of the 36 phyla there are in all the kingdoms 35 do not have a backbone.

Invertebrates vs. Vertebrates

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The subphylum vertebrata contains 5 classes of extant fishes and 4 classes of extant tetrapods (animals with 4 limbs)

Vertebrata Classes

The 4 classes of tetrapods are:

• Amphibians
• Reptiles
• Birds
• Mammals

Chordates Fishes Amphibians Reptiles Mammals Birds

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25 How many fish have trait A?

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26 How many fish have trait C?

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27 What traits do primates and ray-finned fish have in common? A bony skeleton, four limbs

B

amniotic egg, vertebrae C vertebrae, bony skeleton D hair, four limbs

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28 Which of the following sets of animals give birth via amniotic egg? A rabbits, amphibians, birds

B

birds, crocodiles, primates C sharks, amphibians, fish D amphibians, primates, rabbits

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Mammals are defined as endothermic (warm-blooded) animals which produce amniotic eggs, in which the fetus is surrounded by an amniotic membrane. Mammals are further classified into orders, families, genus and species based on derived characteristics. Humans belong to the order Primates, the family Hominidae, the genus Homo, and the species Homo sapiens.

Mammals

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Phylogeny Example: Mammals

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Phylogeny Example: Hominids