BASIC BUILDINGBLOCKS OFTHEUNIVERSE AperspectiveofParticlephysics - - PowerPoint PPT Presentation

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BASIC BUILDINGBLOCKS OFTHEUNIVERSE

AperspectiveofParticlephysics visavisHinduphilosophy

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INDEX

1. TheBuildingBlocksofaDewDrop 04 2. Quarks,Leptons,andBosons 05 3. CosmicRays 06 4. AStrangeNewParticle-TheLambda 06 5. CosmicRays 07 6. QuarkModel 07 7. DiscoveryofNewQuark:TheUpsilon 08 8. BuildingBlocksin1977 08 9. DiscoveryofaNewQuark:bQuark 09 10. BottomtoTop 10 11. Antimatter 10 12. What'sSpecialaboutAntimatter 11 13. BaryonicAsymmetry 12 14. Sakharovconditions 13 15. Baryonnumberviolation 14 16. CP-symmetryviolation 15&16 17. Interactionsoutofthermalequilibrium 17 18. Searchingfortopquark 18 19. Discoveryoftopquarkandfurtherquestions 18 20. Theundiscovered 19 21. Whyistheremass? 19 22. Higgsbosons/HiggsField 20 23. MorequestionswithHiggsBoson 20 24. Whatwouldtheworldlooklikewithout

• theHiggsbosonorasimilarparticle?

21 25. UnicationTheories 21 26. Speculationsonothertypesofbuildingblocks 22&23 27. Consciousness&QM 24&25 28. Reality 26 29. deBroglie-Bohmtheory 27 30. Omni-potentObserver 28 31. Newwindowstotheparticleworld-Neutrinos 28 S.No. PageNo. PART-A (ParticlePhysics) S.No. PageNo. PART-A (ParticlePhysics)

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32. Neutrinosfromtheatmosphereshift

• betweentwoidentities.

29 33. StringTheory 30 34. Constraints 31 35. BestCandidate 32 36. Fundamentals 32 37. Dimensions 33 38. DualitiesandM-theory 34 39. S-Duality 35 40. T-Duality 36 41. UnicationofSuperstringtheories 37 42. TypeIIA 38 43. TypeIIstringtheory 39 44. TypeIIAstringtheory 40 45. TypeIIBstringtheory 41 S.No. PageNo. PART-A (ParticlePhysics) S.No. PageNo. PART-B (PhilosophicalContent)

INDEX

1. ModernPhysicsandHinduPhilosophy 42 2. BrahmaSatyam,JagatMithya 43 3. Wavefunction/Superposition/Entanglement 44 4. CruxofHinduPhilosophy 45 5. BirthoftheUniverse/Vayupuranam 46 6. TheoryofRelativity&Gita 47 7. NeutrinoOscillations 48 8. Furtherquestions 49 9. BuildingblocksasperTheHinduphilosophy 49 10. TheConnection 50 11. PropertiesofOmkara 50,51&52

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TheBuildingBlocksofaDewDrop

Adewdropismadeupofmanymoleculesofwater(1021orabilliontrillion).Each moleculeismadeofanoxygenatomandtwohydrogenatoms(H2O).Atthestartofthe 20thcentury,atomswerethesmallestknownbuildingblocksofmatter. Eachatomconsistsofanucleussurroundedbyelectrons.Electronsareleptonsthatare boundtothenucleusbyphotons,whicharebosons.Thenucleusofahydrogenatomis justasingleproton.Protonsconsistofthreequarks.Intheproton,gluonsholdthe quarkstogetherjustasphotonsholdtheelectrontothenucleusintheatom

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Quarks,Leptons,andBosons

Physicistscurrentlybelievetherearethreetypesofbasicbuildingblocksofmatter:quarks,leptons, andbosons.Quarksandleptonsmakeupeverydaymatter,whichisheldtogetherbybosons.Each bosonisassociatedwithaforce.Thephoton,theunitoftheelectromagneticforce,holdsthe electrontothenucleusintheatom.Thewaytheseparticlescombinedictatesthestructureof matter. Elementary particles are particles with no measurable internal structure; that is, it is unknown whethertheyarecomposedofotherparticles.Theyarethefundamentalobjectsofquantumeld

• theory. Many families and sub-families of elementary particles exist. Elementary particles are

classiedaccordingtotheirspin.Fermionshavehalf-integerspinwhilebosonshaveintegerspin.All theparticlesoftheStandardModelhavebeenexperimentallyobserved,recentlyincludingthe Higgsbosonin2012.Manyotherhypotheticalelementaryparticles,suchasthegraviton,havebeen proposed,butnotobservedexperimentally.

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CosmicRays

Earlyparticlephysicistsstudiedcosmicrays,anaturallyoccurringstreamofhighenergyparticles fromouterspace.Cosmicraysweretherstsourceofunstable,short-livedparticles.Later,physicists discoveredthatmostofthebuildingblocksofmatterliveforsoshortatimethatwedonotseethem ineverydaymatter.Oneoftheunstableparticlestheyfoundwasthemuon(µ),alepton. Oneparticlediscoveredincosmicrayswasthelambda,identiedbyparticletracksformingthe GreeksymbolLambdainthecloudchamber.Thelambdahasnoelectricchargesoitleavesnotrace untilitdecaysintoonepositivelyandonenegativelychargedparticle.TheyleaveaLambdapattern (upsidedownV),asseenontheright.Lambdasweretherstofagroupofparticlescalled"Strange" becausetheydecayedmoreslowlythanexpected.

AStrangeNewParticle-TheLambda

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CosmicRays

Newtechnologyintheearly1960sallowedphysiciststobuildacceleratorstocreatemanynew particlesbyshootingenergeticparticlesattargets.Theseparticleswereshort-livedanddecayed quicklyintoospringparticles.Withevenhigherenergyaccelerators,physicistsfoundanexotic arrayofnewparticles.Theydevelopedtheoriestoexplainhowalltheparticlesinthis"ParticleZoo" couldbemadefromafewbasicbuildingblocks. In1964,physicistsproposedquarksasthebuildingblocksofmanyoftheparticlesinthe"Particle Zoo."Inthistheoryalleverydayobjects,suchasourbodiesandthehomeswelivein,couldbemade fromthreebasicparticles:upanddownquarksandelectrons.AtthattimetheQuarkModelwasone

• fmanypossibleexplanationsandwasnotacceptedforoveradecade.

QuarkModel

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DiscoveryofNewQuark:TheUpsilon

Newacceleratorswithhigherenergiessmashedbeamsofparticlesintoxedtargetstoproduce short-lived particles with high masses. One of these particles, the upsilon, had properties that impliedthatitcouldnotbemadeoftheknownfourquarks:up,down,strangeandcharm.Physicists concludedthattheupsilonwasmadeofanewquark,thebottomquark,anditsantiquark. Byearly1977,twocompletegenerationsofparticleshadbeendiscovered.Withthediscoveryofthe upsilonthatsummer,physicistssawthepossibilityofathirdgenerationofparticles.

BuildingBlocksin1977

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DiscoveryofaNewQuark:bQuark

Newacceleratorswithhigherenergiessmashedbeamsofparticlesintoxedtargetstoproduce short-lived particles with high masses. One of these particles, the upsilon, had properties that impliedthatitcouldnotbemadeoftheknownfourquarks:up,down,strangeandcharm.Physicists concludedthattheupsilonwasmadeofanewquark,thebottomquark,anditsantiquark.Leon Lederman, the second director of Fermilab, headed this 1977 experiment. Today there are acceleratorsdedicatedtotheproductionofupsilonsandstudiesofthebottomquark.

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BottomtoTop

Thequarkscomeinthreegenerationswiththemassincreasingwitheachgeneration.Physicistshad notseenevidenceofthetopquarkinexistingaccelerators,buttheyknewthatifitweremuch heavierthanthebottomquark,theywouldneedfarmoreenergeticcollisionstoproduceit. Foreveryquarkandlepton,physicistshavediscoveredacorrespondingantiparticle.Theseparticles are referred to as antimatter. Antimatter was rst observed in decays of radioactive nuclei. Antiprotons are composed of two antiup quarks and one antidown quark. Antihydrogen (an antiprotonandapositron)wascreatedattheEuropeanlaboratory,CERN,andatFermilabin1996.

Antimatter

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What'sSpecialaboutAntimatter

Yougetmoreenergyformakingnewparticlesbycollidingtheprotonsandantiprotonsheadon.AttheTevatron'senergybycollidingtheantiquarksinthe antiprotonswiththequarksintheprotons,wemakeabouttentimesmoretopandantitopquarksthanwewouldifwejustusedthequarksinprotons.

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BaryonicAsymmetry

Inphysics,thebaryonasymmetryproblem,alsoknownasthematterasymmetryproblemorthe matter-antimatterasymmetryproblem,istheobservedimbalanceinbaryonicmatter(thetypeof matterexperiencedineverydaylife)andantibaryonicmatterintheobservableuniverse.Neitherthe standardmodelofparticlephysics,northetheoryofgeneralrelativityprovidesaknownexplanation forwhythisshouldbeso,anditisanaturalassumptionthattheuniverseisneutralwithallconserved charges.TheBigBangshouldhaveproducedequalamountsofmatterandantimatter.Sincethis doesnotseemtohavebeenthecase,itislikelysomephysicallawsmusthaveacteddierentlyordid notexistformatterandantimatter.Severalcompetinghypothesesexisttoexplaintheimbalanceof matterandantimatterthatresultedinbaryogenesis.However,thereisasofyetnoconsensus theorytoexplainthephenomenon.Asremarkedina2012researchpaper,"Theoriginofmatter remainsoneofthegreatmysteriesinphysics."

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Sakharovconditions

In1967,AndreiSakharovproposedasetofthreenecessaryconditionsthatabaryon-generatinginteractionmustsatisfytoproducematterandantimatterat dierentrates.TheseconditionswereinspiredbytherecentdiscoveriesofthecosmicbackgroundradiationandCPviolationintheneutralkaonsystem.The threenecessary"Sakharovconditions"are:

• Baryonnumberviolation.
• C-symmetryandCP-symmetryviolation.
• Interactionsoutofthermalequilibrium.

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Baryonnumberviolation

Baryonnumberviolationisobviouslyanecessaryconditiontoproduceanexcessofbaryonsover anti-baryons.ButC-symmetryviolationisalsoneededsothattheinteractionswhichproducemore baryonsthananti-baryonswillnotbecounterbalancedbyinteractionswhichproducemoreanti- baryons than baryons. CP-symmetry violation is similarly required because otherwise equal numbersofleft-handedbaryonsandright-handedanti-baryonswouldbeproduced,aswellas equalnumbersofleft-handedanti-baryonsandright-handedbaryons.Finally,theinteractionsmust beoutofthermalequilibrium,sinceotherwiseCPTsymmetrywouldassurecompensationbetween processesincreasinganddecreasingthebaryonnumber. Currently,thereisnoexperimentalevidenceofparticleinteractionswheretheconservationof baryonnumberisbrokenperturbatively:thiswouldappeartosuggestthatallobservedparticle reactionshaveequalbaryonnumberbeforeandafter.

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CP-symmetryviolation

Thesecondconditionforgeneratingbaryonasymmetry-violationofcharge-paritysymmetry-s thataprocessisabletohappenatadierentratetoitsantimattercounterpart. IntheStandardModel,CPviolationappearsasacomplexphaseinthequarkmixingmatrixofthe weakinteraction.Theremayalsobeanon-zeroCP-violatingphaseintheneutrinomixingmatrix, butthisiscurrentlyunmeasured. DuetoCPTsymmetry,violationofCPsymmetrydemandsviolationoftimeinversionsymmetry,orT- symmetry.DespitetheallowanceforCPviolationintheStandardModel,itisinsucienttoaccount fortheobservedbaryonasymmetryoftheuniversegiventhelimitsonbaryonnumberviolation, meaningthatbeyond-StandardModelsourcesareneeded.

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CP-symmetryviolation

ApossiblenewsourceofCPviolationwasfoundattheLargeHadronCollider(LHC)bytheLHCb collaboration. Theexperimentanalysedthedecaysoftwoparticles,thebottomLambda(b0)anditsantiparticle, andcomparedthedistributionsofdecayproducts.Thedatashowedanasymmetryofupto20%of CP-violationsensitivequantities,implyingabreakingofCP-symmetry.Thisanalysiswillneedtobe conrmedbymoredatafromsubsequentrunsoftheLHC.

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Interactionsoutofthermalequilibrium

Intheout-of-equilibriumdecayscenario,thelastconditionstatesthattherateofareaction whichgeneratesbaryon-asymmetrymustbelessthantherateofexpansionoftheuniverse.In thissituationtheparticlesandtheircorrespondingantiparticlesdonotachievethermalequilibrium duetorapidexpansiondecreasingtheoccurrenceofpair-annihilation.

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Searchingfortopquark

Thesearchfortopisakintolookingforneedlesinahaystack.Outofevery trillionproton-antiprotoncollisions,abouttentop-antitopquarkpairsare produced.Physicistsmustsearchoutthesedesirableevents Thetopquarkhadamassmuchlargerthanphysicistshadexpectedwhen the bottom quark was discovered. At the end of the search, top was determinedtohaveamasssimilartothatofagoldatom-anenormous massforafundamentalparticle.

NeedlesinaHaystack

Discoveryoftopquarkandfurtherquestions

Physicistsbelievetheyhavefoundallthequarks.However,thediscovery

• fthetopquarkhasledtomorequestionsbecauseitissomuchheavier

thantheotherquarks.Whyistopsomassive?Whydoesanyfundamental particlehavemass?Physicistsbelievetheanswertothesequestionsis connectedwiththeinteractionsthatgovernthebehaviorofparticles.

LessonslearntfromtheDiscoveryofTopQuark

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Theundiscovered Whyistheremass?

Stars,people,andinsectsallhavemassbecausetheparticlestheyare madeofhavemass.But,notalltypesofparticleshavemass.Whydosome havemassandothersdon't?Whydoesatopquarkhaveabout40timesas muchmassasabottomquark?

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Higgsbosons/HiggsField

TheHiggseldprovidesmasstoquarksandotherelementaryparticles thatarethebuildingblocksofmatter.Thephotonandthegluondonot interactwiththeHiggseld,andhencetheyhavenomass.Whetherthe Higgseldistheoriginofthemassofdarkmatterorthetinymassofthe threeknowntypesofneutrinosisnotyetknown. TheHiggsbosonisaparticlethathelpstransmitthemass-givingHiggs eld, similar to the way a particle of light, the photon, transmits the electromagneticeld.

MorequestionswithHiggsBoson

ScientistsstillhavemuchtolearnabouttheHiggsboson:howitrelatesto

• therparticles,whetheritgivesmasstoneutrinosanddarkmatter,and

whetherthereismorethanonetypeofHiggsboson.?Oneparticular model of particle interactions, known as Supersymmetry, predicts the existenceofatleastvetypesofHiggsbosons.

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WhatwouldtheworldlooklikewithouttheHiggsbosonorasimilarparticle?

Wewouldn'trecognizetheworld.WithouttheHiggsbosonorsomethinglikeitgivingmasstothe basicbuildingblocksofmatter,electronswouldzipaboutatthespeedoflight.Theywouldnotform unionswithprotonsorotherwould-benucleitomakeatoms.Withoutatoms,therewouldbeno chemicalreactions,nomolecules,noordinarymatterasweknowitandnotemplateforlife.We wouldnotexist. Electricity and magnetism are dierent manifestation of a unied electromagnetic force. Electromagnetism,gravityandthenuclearforcesmaybepartsofasingleunedforcemaybeparts

• f a single unied force or interaction. Grand Unication and superstring theories attempt to

describethisuniedforceandmakepredictionswhichcanbetestedwiththeTevatron.

UnicationTheories

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Speculationsonothertypesofbuildingblocks

Althoughtherearereasonstobelievethattherearenomoresetsofquarksandleptons,theorists speculatethattheremaybeothertypesofbuildingblocks,whichmaypartlyaccountforthedark matterimpliedbyastrophysicalobservations.Thispoorlyunderstoodmatterexertsgravitational forcesandmanipulatesgalaxies.Itwilltakeearth-basedacceleratorexperimentstoidentifyits fabric.

Theforces

Scientistsdistinguishfourelementarytypesofforcesactingamongparticles:strong,weak,electromagneticandgravitationalforce.

• Thestrongforceisresponsibleforquarks"sticking"togethertoformprotons,neutronsandrelatedparticles.
• Theelectromagneticforcebindselectronstoatomicnuclei(clustersofprotonsandneutrons)toformatoms.
• Theweakforcefacilitatesthedecayofheavyparticlesintosmallersiblings.
• Thegravitationalforceactsbetweenmassiveobjects.Althoughitplaysnoroleatthemicroscopiclevel,itisthedominantforceinoureverydaylifeand

throughouttheuniverse.

www.kodandapani.net 23 Particlestransmitforcesamongeachotherbyexchangingforce-carryingparticlescalledbosons.Theseforcemediatorscarrydiscreteamountsofenergy, calledquanta,fromoneparticletoanother.Youcouldthinkoftheenergytransferduetobosonexchangeassomethinglikethepassingofabasketball betweentwoplayers.

Eachforcehasitsowncharacteristicbosons:

• Thegluonmediatesthestrongforce;itgluesquarkstogether.
• Thephotoncarriestheelectromagneticforce;italsotransmitslight.
• TheWandZbosonsrepresenttheweakforce;theyintroducedierenttypesofdecays.

Physicistsexpectthatthegravitationalforcemayalsobeassociatedwithabosonparticle.Namedthegraviton,thishypotheticalbosonisextremelyhardto

• bservesince,atthesubatomiclevel,thegravitationalforceismanyordersofmagnitudeweakerthantheotherthreeelementaryforces.

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Consciousness&QM

Observation?Observer

AccordingtooneQMinterpretation,withoutobservation,wecannotcreatematteroutofwaves.Doesitmeanthatonlyhumanscanobserve?Whatabout non-livingthingslikemeasuringinstruments.?Howcanweconcludethecollapseishappeningonlybecauseofourobserving?Isthereanomnipresentand all-pervadingconscious'observer',whoiscollapsingthewavesforusandmakingusfeelthatwearelivingintherealworld?Ifthatisso,whythis'omni-present

• bserver'notcollapsingtheworldatthesub-atomiclevel?

Hence,theevidentimportanceofthepartplayedbyconsciousnessinquantummechanics.Anumberofscientistshadpostulatedthattheremustbea cosmicconsciousnesspervadingtheuniverse;objectsspringintoexistencewhenmeasurementsaremade,measurementswhicharemadebyconscious beings,whichimpliesthattheremustbecosmicconsciousnessthatpervadestheuniversedeterminingwhichstatewearein-somescientists,e.g.,Nobel laureateEugeneWigner,hadarguedthatthisisproofoftheexistenceofGodorsomecosmicconsciousness.Wignerhadremarkedthatitwasnotpossibleto formulatethelawsofquantumtheoryinafullyconsistentwaywithoutreferencetoconsciousness.

www.kodandapani.net 25 Consciousnessormind-forceisevidentlyapotentforceinnature.Themindispart,anindispensablepart,ofnature.ScientistssuchasDavidBohmand WernerHeisenberg,aswellasmanyotherscientists,evidentlyunderstoodthisfundamentalaspect.ClassicalphilosopherssuchasBerkeleyandHumehad wonderedwhethertheexistenceofanyobjectwasindependentoftheexistenceofthemindorconsciousness:IfIhadneverseen(neverbeenawareof)an

• bject,doesthatobjectexist?

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Reality

Aninterpretationofquantummechanicsisanattempttoexplainhowthemathematicaltheoryof quantum mechanics "corresponds" to reality. Although quantum mechanics has held up to rigorousandextremelyprecisetestsinanextraordinarilybroadrangeofexperiments(notone predictionfromquantummechanicsisfoundtobecontradictedbyexperiments),thereexista numberofcontendingschoolsofthoughtovertheirinterpretation.Theseviewsoninterpretation dieronsuchfundamentalquestionsaswhetherquantummechanicsisdeterministicorrandom, which elements of quantum mechanics can be considered "real", and what is the nature of measurement,amongothermatters.

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deBroglie-Bohmtheory

ThedeBroglie-Bohmtheory,alsoknownasthepilotwavetheory,Bohmianmechanics,Bohm's interpretation,andthecausalinterpretation,isaninterpretationofquantummechanics.Inaddition to a wavefunction on the space of all possible congurations, it also postulates an actual congurationthatexistsevenwhenunobserved.Theevolutionovertimeoftheconguration (thatis,thepositionsofallparticlesorthecongurationofallelds)isdenedbythewavefunction byaguidingequation.TheevolutionofthewavefunctionovertimeisgivenbytheSchrödinger equation.ThetheoryisnamedafterLouisdeBroglie(1892-1987)andDavidBohm(1917-1992). Thetheoryisdeterministicandexplicitlynonlocal:thevelocityofanyoneparticledependsonthe valueoftheguidingequation,whichdependsonthecongurationofthesystemgivenbyitswave function;thelatterdependsontheboundaryconditionsofthesystem,which,inprinciple,maybe theentireuniverse.

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Omni-potentObserver

Itisevidentthatconsciousnessisthecentralplayerintheschemeofthingsinnature.Asmentionedearlierifitweretobeanomni-presentobserver,THAT shouldbeindependentoftime.Beyondpast,presentandfutureincludingwhentherewasnotime.AncientHindutextshavedealtaboutitextensivelyand concludedas'Omtatsat'.Meaningitexists.ThatisOmorOmkaram.ThecentralthemeoftheVedas,UpanishadsistherealizationofOmwhichisall pervadingandknower,theultimate,andtheTruth. Neutrinos,whichcomeinthreeavours,changefromoneavourtoanother.Thisdiscoveryisamajormilestoneinparticlephysicsasitgivesaclearevidence

• fphysicsbeyondtheStandardModel.Neutrinooscillationisaquantummechanicalphenomenonwherebyaneutrinocreatedwithaspecicleptonavour

(electron,muon,ortau)canlaterbemeasuredtohaveadierentavor. Neutrinooscillationsandrelatedissuessuchasnatureoftheneutrino,neutrinomassesandpossibilityofCharge-Parity(CP)violationamongleptonsare todaywidelypursuedresearchareasinparticlephysics.

Newwindowstotheparticleworld-Neutrinos

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Neutrinosfromtheatmosphereshiftbetweentwoidentities.

Thereisevidencefortheconversionofelectron-neutrinos( )fromtheSunintomuon-ortau-

νe

neutrinos(

• r

).Theexperimentssolvedthemysterybehindthemissingtwo-hirdsofthesolar-

νμ ντ

neutrinos during the theoretical calculations on Earth. The answer was - neutrinos changed identities. ThediscoveryclearlymeantthattheSMwasnolongeracceptableasthecompletetheoryofthe fundamental constituents of the universe. The results transformed the understanding of the innermostworkingsofmatter,thusopeningupnovelavenuesofunderstandinguniverse.

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StringTheory

StringtheoryisoneofthemostpromisingcandidatesforbridgingthegapbetweenQFTand generalrelativitytheorybysupplyingauniedtheoryofall-naturalforces,includinggravitation. Thebasicideaofstringtheoryisnottotakeparticlesasfundamentalobjectsbutstringsthatarevery smallbutextendedinonedimension.Thisassumptionhasthepivotalconsequencethatstrings interactonanextendeddistanceandnotatapoint.Thisdierencebetweenstringtheoryand standard QFT is essential because it is the reason why string theory also encompasses the gravitationalforcewhichisverydiculttodealwithintheframeworkofQFT.

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Constraints

Oneofthechallengesofstringtheoryisthatthefulltheorydoesnothaveasatisfactorydenitionin allcircumstances.Anotherissueisthatthetheoryisthoughttodescribeanenormouslandscapeof possibleuniverses!!! Reservationsaboutstringtheoryaremostlyduetothelackoftestabilitysinceitseemsthatthereare noempiricalconsequenceswhichcouldbetestedbythemethodswhichare,atleastuptonow, availabletous.Thereasonforthisproblemisthatthelengthscaleofstringsisintheaveragethe same as the one of quantum gravity, namely the Planck length of approximately 1033 centimeterswhichliesfarbeyondtheaccessibilityoffeasibleparticleexperiments.Butthereare alsootherpeculiarfeaturesofstringtheorywhichmightbehardtoswallow.Oneofthemisthefact thatstringtheoryimpliesthatspace-timehas10,11oreven26dimensions.

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BestCandidate

Becausestringtheorypotentiallyprovidesaunieddescriptionofgravityandparticlephysics,itisacandidateforatheoryofeverything,aself-contained mathematicalmodelthatdescribesallfundamentalforcesandformsofmatter. Amongthenumerousalternativeproposalsforreconcilingquantumphysicsandgeneralrelativitytheory,stringtheoryisstillthebestcandidate. Thefundamentalobjectsofstringtheoryareopenandclosedstrings.Stringtheorydescribeshowstringspropagate throughspaceandinteractwitheachother.Inagivenversionofstringtheory,thereisonlyonekindofstring,which maylooklikeasmalllooporsegmentofordinarystring,anditcanvibrateindierentways.Ondistancescaleslarger thanthestringscale,astringwilllookjustlikeanordinaryparticle,withitsmass,charge,andotherproperties determinedbythevibrationalstateofthestring.Inthisway,allofthedierentelementaryparticlesmaybeviewedas vibratingstrings.Instringtheory,oneofthevibrationalstatesofthestringgivesrisetothegraviton,aquantum mechanicalparticlethatcarriesgravitationalforce.Thus,stringtheoryisatheoryofquantumgravity.

Fundamentals

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Dimensions

Ineverydaylife,therearethreefamiliardimensionsofspace:height,widthandlength.Einstein'sgeneraltheoryofrelativitytreatstimeasadimensiononpar withthethreespatialdimensions;ingeneralrelativity,spaceandtimearenotmodeledasseparateentitiesbutareinsteaduniedtoafour-dimensional spacetime.Inthisframework,thephenomenonofgravityisviewedasaconsequenceofthegeometryofspacetime. Onenotablefeatureofstringtheoriesisthatthesetheoriesrequireextradimensionsofspacetimefortheirmathematicalconsistency.Inbosonicstring theory,spacetimeis26-dimensional,whileinsuperstringtheoryitis10-dimensional,andinM-theoryitis11-dimensional.Inordertodescriberealphysical phenomenausingstringtheory,onemustthereforeimaginescenariosinwhichtheseextradimensionswouldnotbeobservedinexperiments. Incompactication,someoftheextradimensionsareassumedto"closeup"onthemselvestoformcircles.

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DualitiesandM-theory

Oneofthemaindevelopmentsofthepastseveraldecadesinstringtheorywasthediscoveryofcertain"dualities",mathematicaltransformationsthatidentify

• nephysicaltheorywithanother.Ingeneral,thetermdualityreferstoasituationwheretwoseeminglydierentphysicalsystemsturnouttobeequivalentin

anontrivialway.Physicistsstudyingstringtheoryhavediscoveredanumberofthesedualitiesbetweendierentversionsofstringtheory,andthishasledto theconjecturethatallconsistentversionsofstringtheoryaresubsumedinasingleframeworkknownasM-theory. Priorto1995,theoristsbelievedthattherewereveconsistentversionsofsuperstringtheory(typeI,typeIIA,typeIIB,andtwoversionsofheteroticstring theory).Thisunderstandingchangedin1995whenEdwardWittensuggestedthatthevetheorieswerejustspeciallimitingcasesofaneleven-dimensional theorycalledM-theory.

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S-Duality

Onenotablefactaboutstringtheoryisthatthedierentversionsofthetheoryallturnouttobe relatedinhighlynontrivialways.Oneoftherelationshipsthatcanexistbetweendierentstring theoriesiscalledS-duality.Thisisarelationshipwhichsaysthatacollectionofstronglyinteracting particlesinonetheorycan,insomecases,beviewedasacollectionofweaklyinteractingparticlesin acompletelydierenttheory.Roughlyspeaking,acollectionofparticlesissaidtobestrongly interactingiftheycombineanddecayoftenandweaklyinteractingiftheydosoinfrequently.TypeI stringtheoryturnsouttobeequivalentbyS-dualitytotheSO(32)heteroticstringtheory.Similarly, typeIIBstringtheoryisrelatedtoitselfinanontrivialwaybyS-duality.

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T-Duality

Another relationship between dierent string theories is T-duality. Here one considers strings propagatingaroundacircularextradimension.T-dualitystatesthatastringpropagatingaround acircleofradiusRisequivalenttoastringpropagatingaroundacircleofradius1/Rinthesense thatallobservablequantitiesinonedescriptionareidentiedwithquantitiesinthedual description.Forexample,astringhasmomentumasitpropagatesaroundacircle,anditcanalso windaroundthecircleoneormoretimes.Thenumberoftimesthestringwindsaroundacircleis calledthewindingnumber.Ifastringhasmomentumpandwindingnumberninonedescription, itwillhavemomentumnandwindingnumberpinthedualdescription.Forexample,typeIIAstring theoryisequivalenttotypeIIBstringtheoryviaT-duality,andthetwoversionsofheteroticstring theoryarealsorelatedbyT-duality.

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UnicationofSuperstringtheories

Intherstsuperstringrevolutionin1984,manyphysiciststurnedtostringtheoryasauniedtheory

• f particle physics and quantum gravity. Unlike supergravity theory, string theory was able to

accommodatethechiralityofthestandardmodel,anditprovidedatheoryofgravityconsistent withquantumeects.Anotherfeatureofstringtheorythatmanyphysicistsweredrawntointhe 1980sand1990swasitshighdegreeofuniqueness.Inordinaryparticletheories,onecanconsider any collection of elementary particles whose classical behavior is described by an arbitrary Lagrangian.Instringtheory,thepossibilitiesaremuchmoreconstrained:bythe1990s,physicists hadarguedthattherewereonlyveconsistentsupersymmetricversionsofthetheory.

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TypeIIA

In1987,EricBergshoe,ErginSezgin,andPaulTownsendshowedthateleven-dimensionalsupergravityincludestwo-dimensionalbranes.Intuitively,these

• bjectslooklikesheetsormembranespropagatingthroughtheeleven-dimensionalspacetime.Shortlyafterthisdiscovery,MichaelDu,PaulHowe,Takeo

Inami,andKelloggStelleconsideredaparticularcompacticationofeleven-dimensionalsupergravitywithoneofthedimensionscurledupintoacircle.In thissetting,onecanimaginethemembranewrappingaroundthecirculardimension.Iftheradiusofthecircleissucientlysmall,thenthismembranelooks justlikeastringinten-dimensionalspacetime.Infact,Duandhiscollaboratorsshowedthatthisconstructionreproducesexactlythestringsappearingin typeIIAsuperstringtheory. IntheabsenceofanunderstandingofthetruemeaningandstructureofM-theory,WittenhassuggestedthattheMshouldstandfor"magic","mystery",or "membrane"accordingtotaste,andthetruemeaningofthetitleshouldbedecidedwhenamorefundamentalformulationofthetheoryisknown.

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TypeIIstringtheory

Intheoreticalphysics,typeIIstringtheoryisauniedtermthatincludesbothtypeIIAstringsand typeIIBstringstheories.TypeIIstringtheoryaccountsfortwooftheveconsistentsuperstring theoriesintendimensions.Boththeorieshavethemaximalamountofsupersymmetrynamely 32supercharges-intendimensions.Boththeoriesarebasedonorientedclosedstrings.Onthe worldsheet,theydieronlyinthechoiceofGSOprojection.

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TypeIIAstringtheory

Atlowenergies,typeIIAstringtheoryisdescribedbytypeIIAsupergravityintendimensionswhich isanon-chiraltheory(i.e.leftrightsymmetric)with(1,1)d=10supersymmetry;thefactthatthe anomaliesinthistheorycancelisthereforetrivial. Inthe1990sitwasrealizedbyEdwardWitten(buildingonpreviousinsightsbyMichaelDu,Paul Townsend,andothers)thatthelimitoftypeIIAstringtheoryinwhichthestringcouplinggoesto innitybecomesanew11-dimensionaltheorycalledM-theory. ThemathematicaltreatmentoftypeIIAstringtheorybelongstosymplectictopologyandalgebraic geometry,particularlyGromovWitteninvariants.

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TypeIIBstringtheory

Atlowenergies,typeIIBstringtheoryisdescribedbytypeIIBsupergravityintendimensionswhich isachiraltheory(leftrightasymmetric)with(2,0)d=10supersymmetry;thefactthattheanomalies inthistheorycancelisthereforenontrivial. In the 1990s it was realized that type IIB string theory with the string coupling constant g is equivalenttothesametheorywiththecoupling1/g.ThisequivalenceisknownasS-duality. OrientifoldoftypeIIBstringtheoryleadstotypeIstringtheory. ThemathematicaltreatmentoftypeIIBstringtheorybelongstoalgebraicgeometry,specicallythe deformationtheoryofcomplexstructures. In1997JuanMaldacenagavesomeargumentsindicatingthattypeIIBstringtheoryisequivalentto N=4supersymmetricYangMillstheoryinthe'tHooftlimit;itwastherstsuggestionconcerning theAdS/CFTcorrespondence.

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ModernPhysicsandHinduPhilosophy

Thereareamazingsimilaritiesbetweenimplicationsoftheoriesofmodernphysicsandancient HinduphilosophyasexpressedinVedasandUpanishads. ThebasisofHinduphilosophyisthemysticalideaofBrahman.TheBrahmanisusuallydescribedby thewordsNeti,Netimeaning,notthis,notthis!WhenIwentintostudyofphysics,Irealizedthat,as farasknowledgeofultimaterealityisconcerned,physicistsareinexactlysamesituationasthe ancientRishis.Bothcannotdescribeitineverydaylanguage. InMundakUpanishad,knowledgeisdividedintotwoparts:ParaVidyawhichdealswiththeeternal truththatcanleadtoselfrealizationandAparaVidyawhichdealswithknowledgeaboutmaterial world.Underthisclassication,PhysicsmightcomeunderAparaVidya.But,Istartedtobelievethat ModernPhysicsisalsoParaVidya!(perhapswithlittletweakshereandthere)

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BrahmaSatyam,JagatMithya

AnumberofearlypioneersinquantumtheorysuchasBohr,Schrodinger,Heisenbergandlater Bohm,weredeeplyinuencedbyeasternmysticalideas.Firstofall,itwasfoundthattheworldisnot madeoutofrigidrmobjectslikebilliardballsorbricks.Attheatomicandsub-atomiclevel,it consistsoffuzzywavelikeobjectsandlotofemptyspace.So,thesolidnatureofobjectswesee aroundisonlyapparent.Asonegoesdeeperanddeeper,onekeepsonndingvacuumalltheway. ThisremindsoneoftheideasofsunyataandMayaorillusioncoveringthewholeuniverse,asAdi ShankaracharyasaidBrahmaSatyam,JagatMithya.Brahmanistheonlytruth;theworldisafalse illusion.Now,justlikeus,hemusthaveseensolidbodies,rigidwallsandtrees.Ibelieveherealized thatallofthisdisintegratesandthuscannotbefundamentalreality.Thus,becauseofthecovering

• fMaya,onedoesnotseetheunderlyingrealBrahman.

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Wavefunction/Superposition/Entanglement

Similarly,inphysics,oneseesonlythematerialobjectsaroundanddoesnotseestrangequantumfuzzyworldunderlyingallthematter.Moreover,the particlesofmodernphysicsarebelievedtobeinsomekindofsuspendedstatedevoidofanyspecicpropertiesuntiltheyaremeasured.Theyareinsome sensebothhereandthereatthesametimeandaredescribedbyawavefunction,asuperpositionofseeminglycontradictoryproperties.Suchadescriptionis verysimilartothedescriptionofBrahmane.g.inIshopanishad:Itmovesanditmovesnot;itisfaranditisnear;itiswithinallthisanditisalsooutsideallthis. ThentheultimateshockofquantumtheorycamewhenBell'stheoremandsubsequentexperimentsprovedtheso-calledentanglementstoberight. Insuchcases,twoormoreatoms,electronsorphotonsdemonstratecorrelatedpropertiesevenatdistanceswherenocommunicationispossiblebetween themduringthegiventime.Thespookyaction.Thesedevelopmentsarethemostimportantdevelopmentsinthehistoryofphysicsandperhapsinthewhole

• fscience.Theygiverisetotheideaoftheinterconnectedwholenessoftheworldandnon-localinteractionsincontrasttotheseparateidentitieswithlocal

interactions.Thus,atomsalsoexhibitholisticlikepropertiesandperhapssomeprimitiverelationshiptoconsciousness.Soitisnotpropertosaythatany analysisstartingwithatomsisreductionistandnotholistic.

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CruxofHinduPhilosophy

ThefourMahavakyasexpresssimilarconceptaboutindividualandBrahman. PragnanamBrahman AitareyaUpanishad RigVeda "ConsciousnessisBrahman"( 3.3ofthe ) AyamAtmaBrahman MandukyaUpanishad AtharvaVeda "ThisSelf(Atman)isBrahman"( 1.2ofthe ) TatTvamAsi ChandogyaUpanishad SamaVeda "ThatThouart"( 6.8.7ofthe ) AhamBrahmasmi BrhadaranyakaUpanishad YajurVeda "IamBrahman"( 1.4.10ofthe ). ThusBrahmanispresentineverything.Thismatchesverywellwiththeconceptofmodernphysicsthateverythingismadeoutofthesamefundamental particles.Anotherbasicndingofquantumtheoryistheinvolvementoftheobserverintheobservedthings.Itisimpossibletoseparatetheeectofthe measuringapparatusfromtheobjectmeasured.Detachmentofthetwoisjustnotpossible.Suchanideaabouttheobserverandtheobjectofobservationis alsoemphasizedinUpanishads.Itisbehindtheholisticphilosophyaboutmindandbody

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BirthoftheUniverse/Vayupuranam

Aleadingcurrentmodeloforiginofuniverseassumesthattherewastotalvacuuminthebeginning andtheuniversearosefromaquantumuctuation.Inthiswaysomethingcameoutofnothing.At thattime,itwastotallydarksincelighthadnotemergedfromvacuumyet!Comparethismodelwith thefollowingquotationfromVayupuranaboutoriginofuniverse.Inthebeginning,therewas nothingintheuniverse.TheBrahman(thedivineessence)alonewaseverywhere.TheBrahmanhad neithercolournorscent;itcouldnotbefeltortouched.Ithadnoorigin,nobeginningornoend.The Brahmanwasconstantanditwastheoriginofeverythingthatwasdestinedtobeintheuniverse andtheuniversewasshroudedindarkness.NaradiyaSukta(storyofcreation)alsomentionsthat therewastotaldarknessbeforecreation.

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TheoryofRelativity&Gita

Therearestrangefactsinthetheoryofrelativityalso:Itrequiresthatmeasurementoftimedepends

• nobserver'smotionandalsothestrengthofgravitationaleldhe/sheisin.Anoften-recurring

mentioninHinduscripturesisthatBrahma'stimeisdierentfromours.Whenonehearsabout Arjunlookingatthepast,presentandfutureinthemouthofLordKrishnainVishwaroopDarshan (Ch.11 of BhavadGita), one is reminded of collapse of the space time coordinate system near singularitiesofgeneraltheoryofrelativity.Also,itiswellknownthatHinduscripturescameupwith thecorrectorderofmagnitudeoftheageofuniverseofseveralbillionyears,whenotherreligious systemsinsistedontheagetobeafewthousandyears. ConceptofBrahmanwouldcorrespondtoquantumconcept.

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NeutrinoOscillations

Neutrinooscillationsarisefromaquantummechanicalphenomenonassociatedwiththefactthattheneutrinoshavemass.Forthethreeneutrinosspecies thatweknowtoexist,theprincipleofsuperpositionallows"avour"states,namelyneutrinosthatinteracttoproduceelectrons,muons,ortaus,tobe (orthogonal)combinationsofthreeneutrinostateswithdenitemass.Inotherwords,whenaweakinteractionproducesaavourstate,suchasamuon neutrino,thatstateisamixtureofstateswithdierentmass.Thesestatesevolveatdierentratessothatalatertime,thestatemayacquiresomecomponent

• fanewavourstate,suchthatifitinteracts,itmaydosoasaavourstatedierentfromitsoriginalavor.Thispossibilityofavorchange,namelythata

neutrinoiscreatedinoneavorandinteractssometimelaterasanother,istheprimarymanifestationofneutrinooscillations. Theobservationofneutrinooscillationsin1998bytheSuper-Kamiokandeexperiment,establishedthatneutrinoshavenon-zeroandnon-degenerate masses.Aroundthesametime,theSNOexperimentdenitivelyshowedthatelectronneutrinosborninthecoreofthesun,transitiontoamixtureofallthree avors,explainingthefewer-than-expectednumberofelectronneutrinosdetectedonEarth.Thesedevelopmentssharedthe2015NobelPrizeinPhysics"for thediscoveryofneutrinooscillations,whichshowsthatneutrinoshavemass."

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Furtherquestions

Dotheygetmassesfromadierentsourcethanotherparticles(e.g.theHiggsmechanism)? WhatroledoneutrinoshaveintheevolutionoftheUniverse?Aretheythereasonforwhytheuniverseismatterdominated? AsperthetenetsoftheHinduphilosophy'Pranava'issupremeconsciousness. 'Pranava'isalsoknownasOm.Om,AuṃorOmkaraorPranavamisasacredsoundandaspiritualsymbolinHinduism,thatsigniestheessenceoftheultimate reality, consciousness or Atman. It is a syllable that is chanted either independently or before a mantra in Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism. ThesyllableOmisrstmentionedintheUpanishads,themysticaltextsassociatedwiththeVedantaphilosophy.Ithasvariouslybeenassociatedwith conceptsof"cosmicsound"or"mysticalsyllable"or"armationtosomethingdivine",orassymbolismforabstractspiritualconceptsintheUpanishads. InJainism,omisconsideredacondensedformofreferencetothePañca-Paramesṭhi. IkOankar,SikhismaretheopeningwordsoftheGuruGranthSahib,theSikhscripture.Itisthestatementthat'thereisoneGod',andthatthereis'singularity despiteseemingplurality'.

BuildingblocksasperTheHinduphilosophy

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TheConnection

Inallprobability,theneutrinosdocorrespondtosomeextentthe'Pranava.ThisassumptionisbasedontheexperimentalconclusionthatNeutrinoshave avoursandthattherearethreestatesofexistencecorrespondingtothethreestatesofthe'Pranava'. Theconstitutionorappearancesofthingsiseight-fold.(Dimensions).Ithasfourmeasuresorextents.(contrarytothreestatesinNeutrinos). Therstoneiselectricaleld. Itsmeteris'Aakaram'therstconsonantinmostofthelanguages.TheessenceorelementoftherstmeasureisEarth. Itsmetricalarrangement,thisstringhasatotalof8letters. Ithasthepropertyofre,stationedineast-southside.Thismeasureisredincolour.Theenergyofthisstringisofgold. Theconditionoftherststring/measurerepresentswakefulstateorconsciousstate.Obesebutvibrant. Ithassevencomponentsorparts;and19facesandenjoysgrossthingsandworldly Itisshortinradiuscomparedtoothercircularstringsencirclingit.Alwaysinwakeful-stateguardingthecentrepoint.

PropertiesofOmkara

www.kodandapani.net 51 Thesecondoneis'U'karamthefthconsonantintheSanskritlanguage.Theessenceorelementofthesecondmeasureissky. Itsmetricalarrangementhasatotalof11letters. Ithasthepropertyofre,stationedinthesouth.Thismeasureiswhiteincolour.Theenergyofthisstringisstaticelectricity. Theconditionofthesecondstring/measurerepresentsdreamfulstateornotbeinginconsciousstate. Ithassevencomponentsorparts;and19facesandenjoyssubtlethings;cupidandinsightful. Itislonginradiuscomparedtotherstcircularstring;encirclingit,andabovetherststring. Thethirdoneis'Ma'karamthetwentyfthletterinthetelugulanguage.Theessenceorelementofthethirdmeasureisswargam. Itsmetricalarrangementhasatotalof12letters. Ithasthepropertyofre,stationedintheface.Thismeasureisblackincolour.Theenergyofthisstringiswhitespectrum. Theconditionofthethirdstring/measurerepresentsdeepsleep.Sushupti. Thisentityhasapropertythatitcannotbesubdued,andthisstringrepresents'time'.

PropertiesofOmkara

www.kodandapani.net 52 Atthecentrepointofallstringsliesthemostimportantentity.Thisiscalledthe'Turiya'stateorthedeepsleepstate.However,astheneutrinososcillate betweenthethreestates,thisstatesubsumesalltheotherstatesoftheearliermentionedthreestrings. Itsmetricalarrangementhasatotalof26letters. Ithasthepropertyofre. Thismeasureisgoldincolour.Theenergyofthisstringismulti-colourspectrum. 5-Nextentityin'Pranava'isthecentrepoint,chakraraju 6-Nextistheentityof'sound',theking 7-KalaswarupuduLakshamnudu 8-BhagavathiSita,female,Mulaprakruthi

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Conclusion

Theimagelookslikethis. Substitutethewithrightsideimage,forthePranavaor'Om'constitution.

• These'Omkarams'areinhugenumber,millions/BillionsintheskyvisibleinSunlight.
• Theuniverseactsasasingleconnectedsystemofparticleswhereeveryparticleisawareofevery
• therparticle.Thisisuniversalconnectedness.
• Universalconnectednessandnon-localityarethetwofacetsofQuantumMechanicsthatmakes

ita'touchy'subjectandopenupawiderangeofdebatesandinterpretations,despitethestrong mathematicalfoundationtobackupQMasawell-establishedscientictheory.

• Butmorethananythingelse,seekingtheultimatetruthaboutthepurposeofourexistenceand

searchingforthenalanswer,seemstobethegreatestmotivationforscience.

• Intheopinionoftheauthor,theubiquitousrealityistheexistenceof'Om'whichistheultimate

reality.However,thereisnothinginthisuniversethatisreal.Theaspectofconsciousnessorthe

• mni-present'Om'istheonlyrealobjectwhichisOmnipotentandomnipresent.

54

Conclusion

• Itisevidentthatconsciousnessisthecentralplayerintheschemeofthingsinnature.Asmentionedearlierifitweretobeanomni-presentobserver,THAT

shouldbeindependentoftime.Beyondpast,presentandfutureincludingwhentherewasnotime.AncientIndictextshavedealtaboutitextensivelyand concludedas'Omtatsat',meaning'itexists'.ThatisOmorOmkaram.ThecentralthemeoftheVedas,UpanishadsistherealizationofOmwhichisall pervadingandknower,theultimateandtheTruth.

• ThoughOmispopularlyknownasaprimordialsound,itwasalsodescribedintheancienttextsregardingitsshape,patternandcolours.ManyUpanishads

eloquentlydescribedthatOmhasnobeginningnorend;furtheritisallpervadingintheskyincountlessnumberwithintheuniverseandoutside.ITisthe

• bserver,motionless,yetfasterthanthefastest,knowerofallactionsandbeyond.
• PaulSteinhardtofPrincetonUniversityoncequipped"Ifhistoryteachesusanythingitisthatthenextimportantclueswillcomefromasurprisingdirection.

Someobservationorcalculationwillbemadethatwillreorientourinquiriesand,ifithappensashashappenedsoofteninthepast,wewillrealizethatthe importantevidencehasbeensittingunnoticedunderournosesforDecades.

• ThisquotefromIsaacNewtonsaysitall:Tomyself,Iamonlyachildplayingonthebeach,whilevastoceansoftruthlieundiscoveredbeforeme.

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55

References

• 1. FermiLabmaterial
• 2. Stanfordpapers
• 3. 'SpeedofTime'bySharadNalwade
• 4. Upanishads:AdhrvasikhoUpanishad;NrusimhauttaratapansiyoUpanishad;RamottaratapinyuUpanishad;TarasaroUpanishad'MandukyoUpanishad;

KathoUpanishad;BhruhadarakoUpanishad;DhyanaBindooUpanishad;GopalottaratapinyuUpanishad

• 5. Vayupuranam;BhagavadGita

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