1 Is Managing Fire Safety an Option? Human (moral) Economic - - PDF document

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Successful Practical Relevant

NEBOSH Fire Certificate Managing Fire Safety

Element 1

Element 1 Learning Outcomes

 Outline the moral, legal and financial consequences of

inadequate management of fire safety.

 Outline the legal framework for the regulation of fire safety in

new, altered and existing buildings (including government guidance).

 Describe the role and powers of enforcement agencies and

• ther external agencies in relation to fire safety.

 Outline the key features of fire safety policy.  Outline the main sources of external fire safety information  Explain the purpose of, and the procedures for, investigating

fires in the workplace.

 Explain the legal and organisational requirements for

recording and reporting fire related incidents.

Successful Practical Relevant

Consequences of Inadequate Management of Fire Safety

Element 1.1

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Is Managing Fire Safety an Option?

Human (moral) Economic (financial) Legal

Moral, Legal & Financial Arguments

 Human (moral):

– Fires result in a great deal of suffering from those affected – Must do all we can to avoid this

 Economic (financial):

– Interruption to business and loss of trade  Most companies that have a major fire never resume trading – Environmental damage – Legal costs, fines, increased insurance premiums etc.

 Legal:

– Breach of fire legislation is a criminal offence – Legislation requires fire prevention measures to be put into place

and employees and other relevant persons to be protected from the effects of fire and mitigate its effects in the vicinity of a premises.

Delegate Exercise The Cost of Accidents

 To the victim or victims  To the firm  Person responsible  Working group  The tax payer

Economic Legal Human

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Definitions

 Primary fire: – All fires in buildings, vehicles and outdoor structures or any

fire involving casualties, rescues or fires attended by 5 or more appliances

 Secondary fires: – The majority of outdoor fires including grassland, refuse fires

and single derelict buildings (excluding those above)

 Chimney fires: – Any fire in an occupied building where the fire was confined

within the chimney structure (excluding those above)

 False alarm: – An event in which the fire and rescue service believes they

were called to a reportable fire and then find there is no such incident

Costs of Fires

 Fire damage claims in the first half of 2009 cost £639

million - £3.6 million each day.

 2008 fire losses were £1.3 billion, a 16% rise on 2007

and the most expensive year ever.

 Between 2002 and 2008 the cost of the average fire

claim for both commercial and domestic fires doubled, to £21,000 and £8,000 respectively.

 More open plan buildings, which allow more rapid

spread of fire, and the increase in out of town developments, where fires can go for longer unnoticed, are among factors contributing to the doubling of fire costs since 2002.

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Costs of Arson

 Arson, which tends to increase during a

recession, accounts for half of all commercial fires.

 Socially deprived areas and schools are

especially vulnerable: arson rates are 30 times higher in poorer areas.

 Many schools a suffer arson attacks, disrupting

the education of thousands of schoolchildren, and causing significant financial damage costs.

 1992 - Windsor Castle, estimated

cost of repair over £40 million

Fire Safety What Events do You Remember?

 1987 - Kings Cross Fire 31 people

died, if fire starts in a crowded area the consequences can be appalling

 1985 - Bradford football stadium

fire, 56 people died 100’s injured

Primark Warehouse Fire – 1 Nov 05

 Some 15 fire

engines and dozens

• f firefighters tackled

the massive blaze at the 440,000 sq ft TNT Primark warehouse near Lutterworth.

 No-one was hurt, but the building was totally destroyed – The value of the building was £8million – The value of the stock was £50million

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Buncefield Oil Terminal Fire 11 December 2005

 Largest explosions ever to occur in

the country

 43 people injured – 2 seriously  Severe damage to over 80 buildings  Fire raged for several days  Estimated cost of incident put

between £500million and £1bn

 32,000 litres/min of foam pumped

for 4 hours to try to quell the fire

 Ground water well close to site

polluted by the foam

Grenfell Fire 14th June 2017

 Public housing flats in North Kensington, Royal Borough of

Kensington and Chelsea, West London.

 It caused at least 80 deaths and over 70 injuries.  A definitive death toll is not expected until at least 2018.  The fire started in a fridge-freezer on the fourth floor.  The growth of the fire is believed to have been

accelerated by the exterior cladding.

 Emergency services received the first report of

the fire at 00:54 and the fire burned for 60 hours.

 More than 250 firefighters and 70 fire engines

from stations all over London were involved in efforts to control the fire.

Tort of Negligence

 Common law establishes a duty to take reasonable care of

those that might be affected by how people do things

 Insufficient care may be considered as being negligent  Negligence is a civil wrong, a tort, recognised by civil courts

which means someone who could sued for negligence can insure for their loss

 Donoghue v Stevenson 1932:

– “You must take reasonable care to avoid acts or omissions which you

can reasonably foresee would likely to injure your neighbour”

 Test of proof:

– Person owed a common law duty of care – There was a failure to fulfill the duty to take reasonable care – Damage, loss or injury resulted from the breach

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Common Law Duty of Care

 Employers:

– A safe place of work – Safe appliances and equipment – A safe system of work – Competent and safety conscious personnel

 Occupier of a building:

– Take reasonable care for those that might foreseeably be affect by

their actions or omissions

– Includes employees and lawful visitors

 Multi-occupancy buildings:

– Various occupiers to meet their common law duty – Cooperate and coordinate their activities with other occupiers – Duty extends to owner of multi-occupancy buildings

Successful Practical Relevant

Legal Framework for Regulation of Fire Safety

Element 1.2

Relationships & Relative Status

 Regulatory Reform (Fire Safety) Order

(RRFSO) 2005 or the Fire (Scotland) Act 2005 (as amended)

 Fire Safety Regulations  Approved Codes of Practice (ACoP’s)

– None of these currently exist for fire legislation.

 Official Guidance

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Meanings of the Terms in Legislation

Absolute Duty Practicable Reasonably Practicable

More often seen as: “so far as reasonably practicable” or ‘sfarp’ Definitions Absolute & Practicable

 Absolute:

– Must/Shall/Will be done

• Practicable:
• If technically possible;

capable of being achieved even though expensive, difficult or inconvenient

• i.e. knowledge & invention

Definitions Reasonably Practicable

• Reasonably practicable:

 Implies that a calculation of cost

versus risk may be made

 If the risk of an accident or injury is

very small, but the cost of prevention in terms of money, time and/or trouble is very high then it may not be reasonably practicable to take that precaution

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Relevant Statutory Provisions?

 The Regulatory Reform (Fire Safety) Order 2005  The Fire and Rescue Services Act 2004  The Fire (Scotland) Act 2005  The Fire Safety (Scotland) Regulations 2006  The Environmental Protection Act 1990  The Health & Safety at Work etc. Act 1974  The Management of Health and Safety at Work

Regulations 1999

 The Reporting of Injuries, Diseases and Dangerous

Occurrences Regulations 2013.

Successful Practical Relevant

The Regulatory Reform (Fire Safety) Order 2005

Effective From 1st October 2006

Repealed Numerous Former Pieces of Legislation

 The Fire Precautions Act 1971  The Fire Certificate (Special Premises) Regulations

1971

 The Fire Precautions (Workplace) Regulations 1997  Fire Safety and Safety of Places of Sport Act 1987

– Part 1; s33(1)(b); Schedule 1

 Health & Safety at Work Act 1974 s78 and Schedule 8

… and a host of other pieces of legislation

10 Background

 Large act with various schedules attached  Tidies up the many pieces of legislation  Removes the requirement to apply for a fire

certificate

 Accompanied by a series of guidance

documents (www.communities.gov.uk/fire)

• The new legislation comes with a series of guidance notes:
• offices and shops;
• sleeping accommodation;
• educational premises;
• small and medium places of assembly;
• large places of assembly;
• factories and warehouses;
• theatres, cinemas and similar places;
• residential care premises;
• healthcare premises;
• transport premises and facilities
• animal premises and stables;
• means of escape for disabled people;
• fire risk assessment 5 step checklist; and
• do you have paying guests?

Guidance Notes for New Regulation Where the New Regulation Does Not Apply

 The Order does not apply to:

– Domestic premises – Offshore installations – Ships – Fields, woods and other land forming part of

agricultural or forestry undertakings

– Aircraft, locomotives or rolling stock used as a

means of transport

– Mines – Borehole sites

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Responsible Person

 In relation to a workplace

– the employer, if the workplace is to any extent under his

control

 If the premises are not a workplace

– the person who has control of the premises in connection

with carrying on a trade or business

 The owner

– where the person in control of the premises does not

have control in connection with the carrying on of a trade

• r business

Responsible Person Duties

 The responsible person must ensure that:

– Where the premises are a workplace

 Any duty imposed is complied with (Art.8 – Art.22)

– Where the premises are not a workplace

 Ensure that any duties imposed are complied with, so

far as the requirements relate to matters under his control

– Any duty imposed on the responsible person shall

be imposed on every person who has to any extent control of those premises so far as the requirements relate to matters under his control

Responsible Person Duties

 The responsible person must make and give

effect to such arrangements, having regard to the size of the undertaking and the nature of activities for effective:

– Planning – Organisation – Control (planning and implementation) – Monitoring – Review

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Responsible Person Duties

 The responsible person must ensure that:

– The premises are, to the extent as is appropriate,

equipped with appropriate

• Fire fighting equipment
• Fire detectors
• Alarms

– Any non-automatic fire fighting equipment is

• Easily accessible
• Simple to use
• Identified with appropriate signage

Delegate Exercise In your allocated syndicates make a list of what the Responsible Person under RRFSO will need to ensure is carried out in order to ensure that safety risks are managed with regards to Fire

RRFSO Articles 8-22

8.

Duty to take general fire precautions

9.

Risk Assessment

• 10. Principles of prevention to be provided
• 11. Fire safety arrangements
• 12. Elimination/reduction of dangerous substances risks
• 13. Fire fighting and fire detection
• 14. Emergency routes and exits
• 15. Procedures for serious and imminent danger and for danger areas
• 16. Additional emergency procedures in respect of dangerous substances
• 17. Maintenance
• 18. Safety assistance
• 19. Provision of information to employees
• 20. Provision of information to employers and self-employed from outside

undertakings

• 21. Training
• 22. Co-operation and co-ordination

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Safety Assistance

 The responsible person must: – Nominate competent persons to implement those

measures

– Ensure that the number of person are adequate – Their training and equipment are adequate  A person is to be regarded as competent where

he has sufficient training and experience or knowledge and other qualities to enable him to implement the above measures

Successful Practical Relevant

Roles and Powers of Enforcement Agencies and External Agencies

Element 1.3

Enforcement Authorities

 The fire and rescue authority for the area of the premises  The Health and Safety Executive (Nuclear Installations,

ships and construction sites)

 The fire service maintained by the Secretary of State for

Defence for armed forces and MOD establishments

 The relevant local authority in relation to: – a sports ground designated as requiring a safety certificate

under section 1 of the Safety of Sports Grounds Act

– a regulated stand within the meaning of section 26(5) of the

Fire Safety and Safety of Places of Sport Act 1987

 A fire inspector, or any person authorised by the Secretary

• f State for Crown occupied property or United Kingdom

Atomic Energy Authority property

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Powers of Inspectors – Slide 1

 Produce evidence of his authority.  To enter any premises, without the use of

force, which he has reason to believe it is necessary for him to enter and to inspect the whole or part of the premises.

 To make inquiries to: – ascertain whether the provisions of the

RRFSO or any regulations made under it apply or have been complied with

– to identify the responsible person in

relation to the premises

Powers of Inspectors – Slide 2

 To require the production of any records (including plans): – which are required to be kept by virtue of any provision

• f the Order or regulations; or

– which it is necessary to see for the purposes of an

examination or inspection under this article;

 To inspect and take copies of, or of any entry in, the

records;

 To require any person having responsibilities in relation to

any premises to give such facilities and assistance with any matters or things to which the responsibilities of that person extend for the purpose of enabling the inspector to exercise any of the powers conferred;

Powers of Inspectors – Slide 3

 To take samples of any articles or substances

found in any premises which he has power to enter for the purpose of ascertaining their fire resistance or flammability;

 In the case of any article or substance found

being an article or substance which appears to him to have caused or to be likely to cause danger to the safety of relevant persons:

– to cause it to be dismantled or – subjected to any process or test  (but not so as to damage or destroy it unless

this is, in the circumstances, necessary).

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Alteration Notice – Slide 1

 The enforcing authority may serve on the

responsible person "an alterations notice" if the authority is of the opinion that the premises:

– constitute a serious risk to relevant persons

(whether due to the features of the premises, their use, any hazard present, or any other circumstances); or

– may constitute such a risk if a change is made to

them or the use to which they are put.

 Appeals to be made to a Magistrates Court within

21 days.

Alteration Notice – Slide 2

 An alterations notice must: – state that the enforcing authority is of the opinion that either

• f the conditions given in slide 1 exist; and

– specify the matters which in their opinion, constitute a risk to

relevant persons or may constitute such a risk if a change is made to the premises or the use to which they are put

 An alterations notice may be withdrawn at any time and the

notice is deemed to be in force until such time as it is withdrawn or cancelled by the court.

 Nothing in this notice stops an enforcing authority from

serving an enforcement notice or a prohibition notice in respect of the premises

Enforcement Notice – Slide 1

 Similar to an ‘Improvement Notice’ under HSWA 1974  If in the opinion of the inspector the responsible person has

failed to comply with any fire legislation, the authority may serve that person "an enforcement notice“.

 An enforcement notice must: – specify the provisions which have not been complied

with; and

– Require that person to take steps to remedy the failure

within such period from the date of service of the notice as specified in the notice.

 Appeals to be made to a Magistrates Court within 21 days.

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Enforcement Notice – Slide 2

 An enforcement notice may include directions to the

measures the enforcing authority consider necessary to remedy the failure:

– any such measures may be framed so as to give a

choice between different ways of remedying the contravention.

 Where it is the opinion that a person's failure to comply also

extends to a workplace, or employees who work in a workplace, for which they are not the enforcing authority, the notice may include requirements concerning the workplace/employees,

– however, in this case the enforcing authority must consult

the enforcing authority for that workplace.

Prohibition Notice – Slide 1

 Issue if in the opinion of the inspector the use of

premises involves or will involve a risk to persons so serious that use of the premises ought to be prohibited

• r restricted

 A prohibition notice must: – specify the matters which in their opinion give or, as

the case may be, will give rise to that risk; and

– direct that the use to which the prohibition notice

relates is prohibited or restricted to such extent as may be specified in the notice until the specified matters have been remedied.

 Appeals to be made to a Magistrates Court within 21

days.

Prohibition Notice – Slide 2

 The notice may give directions on how to remedy the

matters and such measures may be framed to afford a choice between different ways of remedying the matters.

 A prohibition or restriction given in the notice takes

immediate effect if serious personal injury is or will be imminent,

 Where practicable, before such a notice is served on a

house in multiple occupation the local housing authority is to be notified and informed of the use which they intend to prohibit/restrict.

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Penalties in the Criminal Courts

 It is for the accused to prove that all reasonable

precautions and all due diligence was taken to avoid the offence.

 Penalties on summary conviction (Magistrates

Court) an unlimited fine.

 If the matter is taken on indictment (a formal

charge of having committed a most serious criminal offence) it could lead to an unlimited fine, 2 years imprisonment or both. Who are the various Agencies Involved with Fire Safety?

 Fire Authority  Fire and Rescue Services  Health and Safety Executive  Local Authorities  Environmental Agencies (EA & SEPA)  Insurance Companies

Fire and Rescue Act 2004 – Slide 1

 Section 44

– Allows authorised employees to deal

with fires, road traffic accidents and

• ther emergencies

– It gives power to “do anything he

reasonably believes to be necessary” in relation to extinguishing or preventing fires including entering a premises by force without consent.

So what powers will they have?

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Fire and Rescue Act 2004 – Slide 2

 Section 45

– Enter premises at any reasonable time to obtain

information needed for fire fighting, dealing with road traffic accidents and specified emergencies

 Cannot be forcible and 24 hours notice must be given for a

private dwelling, unless authorised by a Justice of the Peace

– Can take with him any other person or equipment that he

considered necessary

– Be provided with any facilities, information, documents or

records or other assistance, that he may reasonably request

Fire and Rescue Act 2004 – Slide 3

Section 45 (continued):

 When investigating fires, in exercising his powers, an

authorised officer can additionally:

– Carry out inspections, measurements and tests in relation to

the premises, or to an article or substance

– Take samples of articles and substances – Dismantle an article found on the premises – Take possession of an article or substances:  Examine it and do anything he has the power to do  Ensure that it is not tampered with before his examination  Ensure that it is available for use as evidence in

proceedings

Fire Authority

 Responsible for enforcing RRFSO 2005  Also responsible for:

– Promoting community fire safety – Planning and implementing procedures to fight fires etc – Rescuing people from road traffic accidents – Responding to emergencies such as flood, terrorist incidents

etc.

– Equip and respond to events beyond core functions such as

rope rescue

 Can agree to the use of its equipment or personnel for

purposes it believes appropriate and whenever its so chooses

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Non-Executive Directors of HSE

 Acts on behalf of the government  Identifies the need for legal requirements, arrange

drafts and consultation

 Influence law from the point of view that they decide

what laws are appropriate and when they are to be introduced

 Control the quantity of law and the scope/extent of a

given law

 They can be lobbied by organisations with aim to

gain modifications or delay

Health and Safety Executive

 Appointed as an enforcing authority under RRFSO

2005 for:

– Nuclear installations – A ship, including Navy, which is in the course of

construction, reconstruction or conversion or repair by persons who include persons other than the master and crew of the ship

– Construction sites

Local Authorities

 A local authority is appointed as an enforcing authority

under the RRFSO for:

– A sports ground designated as requiring a safety

certificate under Section 1 of the Safety of Sports Grounds Act 1975

– A regulated stand within the meaning of section 26(5)

• f the Fire Safety and Safety of Places of Sport Act

1987

 The LA has a duty under article 45 of the RRFSO, to

consult with the fire authority before passing plans to erect a building, deposited with them in accordance with building regulations.

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Environmental Agency (EA) / Scottish Environmental Protection Agency (SEPA)

 Both agencies are concerned with protecting and

improving the land, air and water environment

 RRFSO imposes a duty on the responsible person to

mitigate the effects of a fire on anyone on the premises

• r in the vicinity of the premises

 If a fire causes pollution it will be of interest to the

EA/SEPA

 Fire authorities and EA/SEPA usually work in

conjunction with each other with the EA/SEPA making available to the fire authorities environmental damage limitation equipment.

Insurance Companies

 Have become increasingly aware

they may have under-estimated the risks of fire in companies they insure

 This has meant they have

reviewed factors that have led to claims

 Their findings have been used to

influence organisations to improve their fire safety to reduce the level

• f risks

Successful Practical Relevant

Key Features of a Fire Safety Policy

Element 1.4

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Fire Safety Management Framework

 The RRFSO imposes a legal duty on the

responsible person to put into place safety arrangements

 The arrangements must take into account the size

and nature of activities.

 These arrangements must include:

– Planning – Organisation – Control – Monitoring – Review

Management Models

 There are three (effective for NEBOSH April

2015) management model systems commonly used:

– OSHAS (ISO) 18001 – BS 8800 – HSG 65

 All ostensibly the same.

Initial Review Continual Improvement Policy Planning Implementation and Operation Checking and Corrective Actions Management Review

OSHAS 18001 Model

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Audit Initial and periodic status review Policy Organising Planning and Implementation Measuring Performance

BS 8800 Model

HSG65 - The Management of Health and Safety

Policy Planning

Risk Profiling Organising Implementing Measuring Performance Investigating Accidents, Incidents Etc. Reviewing performance Learning lessons

PLAN DO CHECK ACT

Policy for Fire Safety Management

 Setting Policy – The policy for fire safety management is usually

scoped within the organisations overall health and safety policy

– It is good practice to give a senior manager the

• verall responsibility for fire safety management.

– However, it should be remembered that the

‘responsible person’ cannot absolve their responsibility as defined in the RRFSO

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Organising for Fire Safety Management

 Arrangements: – Must be in place for the effective planning, organisation,

control, monitoring and review of preventive and protective measures and encompass consultation with employees; must be recorded if:

 There are 5 or more employees  A licence under an enactment is in force  An alterations notice is in force

– They must be flexible enough to allow for change and

may cover such areas as:

 Responsibility for fire safety at board level  Responsibility for each premises  Arrangements for appointing people to carry out specific roles in

the event of a fire

Monitoring and Reviewing

 In order to ensure that the implemented plan for fire safety

is effective it needs to be monitored

 Monitoring should not rely solely on reactive monitoring of

actual/potential fire incidents, but should include proactive monitoring

 A mixture of proactive monitoring methods can be utilised,

including inspections, maintenance checks and meetings

 Proposed and actual changes in premises, people,

materials and processes should be monitored to see if amendments to the arrangements are required

 Planned reviews should also be undertaken to follow fire

incidents, proposed changes and after a period of time if not done for another reason

Auditing

 Auditing is imperative and should be carried out by

an independent party, be systematic and cover all aspects of the fire safety policy

 It should examine the standards and compliance

with them within the management system for fire safety

 More than a physical inspection, it checks on the

policy, the organisation for implementing the policy, individuals responsibilities, procedures including those for monitoring and reviewing, records etc.

 The frequency of auditing will depend on the level of

risk relating to the premises

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Fire Log Book Contents?

 Record all outcomes from fire prevention arrangements, including: –

Contact details for maintenance and servicing engineers

–

Records of visits from Fire Officers

–

Records of maintenance/servicing of fire equipment (alarms, appliances etc.)

–

Record of staff training

–

Record of fire drills

–

Record of actual fire alarm activation (including false alarms)

–

Record of fire alarm tests

–

Record of emergency lighting checks

–

Record of fire fighting appliance checks

–

Record of briefings on fire precautions and safety

–

Copy of the fire risk assessment

–

Copies of fire safety plans

–

Copies of audit reports.

Successful Practical Relevant

Sources of External Fire Safety Information

Element 1.5

Sources of Information ~ 1

 Legislation from:

– www.opsi.gov.uk

 Approved Codes of Practice from:

– www.hse.gov.uk

 British Standards  Building Regulations (Part B)  Local Government Websites  Fire Authority Websites

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Sources of Information ~ 2

 Fire safety guides on:

– www.communities.gov.uk/fire

 From fire safety organisations on such

websites as:

– www.arsonpreventionbureau.org.uk – www.bre.co.uk – www.ife.org.uk – www.means-of-escape.com – www.thefpa.co.uk Successful Practical Relevant

The Purposes and Procedures for Investigating Fires in the Workplace

Element 1.6

Fire Investigation

 Purpose of investigating? – The responsible person may want:  To determine the cause and preventative

measures to be put into place to prevent recurrence

 To gather evidence because of the prospect

• f civil and/or criminal litigation

– The Fire and Rescue Services may investigate

to gather evidence in order to lay a criminal charge against the responsible person

– An insurance company may investigate to

determine if they have a liability for any claim arising from the fire

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Non-Fatal Fire Investigation

 Covers events such as accidental and arson fires as well as

false alarm

 Important to investigate because: – Can learn from events that have not caused harm – Can make improvements before an injury or fatality happens – It provides a valid test of preventative and protective

arrangements

– Gives an opportunity to review planning and implementation

procedures

– Repetitive false alarms can undermine the credibility of the

system (need to ensure people have confidence in the system)

 Fire and Rescue Service would also investigate and results

would be incorporated into national statistics

Procedural Differences & Definitions 1

 Accidental fire investigations: – If arson not suspected a fire would be considered to be

accidental (someone could still be held responsible for it)

– The enforcing authority (EA) would determine the causes of

the fire and determine if there were breaches sufficient for enforcement action

– Police do not need to be involved as EA have the power to

prosecute

 Fire investigation is divided into various stages: – Interviewing eye witnesses – Locating the seat of the fire – Excavating the seat – Evaluation of evidence – Review of findings – Report

Procedural Differences & Definitions 2

Arson set fires (non-accidental): – May be categorised as ‘malicious’, ‘deliberate’ or ‘doubtful’ – Deliberate ignition only has to be suspected not proven to

categorise a fire up from ‘doubtful’,

Arson or malicious fire investigation: – Investigated by fire and rescue authority – Conducted as a formal fire investigation to determine the cause – Specialist officer involved working in partnership with police and

may involve a police forensic scientist

– Police have to prove persons behaved ‘recklessly’ or ‘intended

to damage property’ to record an offence of arson

– ‘Malicious’ firing only considered arson if life is put in danger

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Investigation Preparation

 Investigation may start before the fire

is extinguished

 Important not to disturb the scene of

the fire any more than necessary

 May have an impact of fire fighting

methods used

 If the fire results in death or arson

suspected the fire fighting may be stopped or amended to allow initial investigation to take place before the evidence is ruined

Investigation and Other Agencies 1

 Police: – Responsible for the criminal investigation of arson or

suspicious fires

– They will liaise with the Fire and Rescue Services (FRS) – May have contact with them regarding the fire risk

assessment and security issues

 Fire & Rescue Service (FRS): – Has the power to investigate fires (powers already covered) – You have a duty to assist fire officers in their investigation – May need to speak to fire officers when carrying out the fire

risk assessment regarding various issues e.g. COSHH

– FRS may assess the risk to their employees in larger high

risk premises and visit as part of this process

Investigation and Other Agencies 2

 HSE: – May contact re fire risk assessments e.g. construction sites  Public Utilities: – May need to discuss issues re drainage, water pollution, fire

water run offs etc especially if dangerous substances might be involved

– Utilities that might be involved include:  Water Supply Company  Sewerage Company  Electrical Supply Company  Gas Supply Company  Telecommunications Company  Insurance Companies – to determine liability etc

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Identifying Reasons / Remedial Action

 Detection of crime  Verification of insurance claims  Prevention of future fires  Identification of defective components  Identification of dangerous substances  To gather evidence of a coroners office  To determine reasons for false alarms  To identify additional preventive/protective measures  To find weaknesses in fire management system  To ensure everything ‘so far as is reasonably

practicable’ has been done to prevent recurrence

Site and Damaged Area Clean Up

 Important to ensure health and safety of those involved  Structure may be unstable  Services may be exposed and substances released  Site may be similar to a building left unoccupied a long time  Pre-demolition survey may be needed  Specialist companies may be needed to assist in the clean up

Successful Practical Relevant

Legal and Organisational Requirements for Recording and Reporting Fire Related Incidents

Element 1.7

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Post Fire Management

 If an organisation suffers a fire incident, there will

be certain actions taken dependent on the scale of the fire and if any injury occurred.

 The responsible person will need to ensure that

fires are reported because of:

– Statutory requirements; and – Non-statutory reasons

Non-Statutory Reasons

 The reporting of the incident would enable resources to

be allocated for an investigation

 The investigation in turn, should help to identify flaws

with existing controls and therefore assist in the implementation of improved controls

 Analysis of reports may identify trends or patterns  Gathering statistical data will help the ‘responsible

person’ and, if the Fire and Rescue Services request the data may assist in development of national statistics to identify trends and comparisons.

 To review fire safety risk assessments

Recording of Incidents, Injuries and Dangerous Occurrences

 Accident book:

– If an injury has occurred due to a fire (e.g. smoke

inhalation) it should be reported and recorded in the accident book

 General incident or occurrence book:

– May be kept to record various events relating to fires – Important if false fire alarm operations, near misses

• r fires occur on a frequent basis

– May reveal trends/patterns and help identify

improvements

30

Statutory Requirements

 If a person was injured the ‘responsible person’ may

have to determine if it is reportable under RIDDOR 2013

 It is an implied requirement under RRFSO 2005

Article 11 to have arrangements to monitor preventive and protective measures

 To provide evidence in any legal action that may be

taken

 The ‘responsible person’ must comply with the

requests of the fire service investigating officer and supply such assistance and information as required.

Successful Practical Relevant

NEBOSH Fire Certificate Principles of Fire and Explosion

Element 2 Element 2 Learning Outcomes

 Explain the principles of the combustion process in

relation to fire safety

 Explain the principles and conditions for the ignition

• f solids, liquids and gases

 Identify the classifications of fires  Describe the principles of fire growth and fire spread  Outline the principles of explosion and explosive

combustion.

31

Successful Practical Relevant

The Principles of the Combustion Process in Relation to Fire Safety

Element 2.1

The Fire Triangle

 A fire requires:  Ignition – Any heat build up or a spark can

start a fire

 Fuel – All fires require some kind of fuel,

from petrol, material, fats or chemicals

 Oxygen – Without oxygen a fire cannot be

sustained

Methods of Extinguishing a Fire

 Cooling – Cooling the fire to remove the heat, e.g. water  Starving – Starving the fire of fuel, e.g. isolation of gas supply  Smothering

– Smothering the fire by limiting its oxygen supply, e.g.

foam extinguisher

 Chemical Interference – Interference of the flame reactions, e.g. method by which

some extinguishing media works.

32

The Combustion Process

 Once combustion has been initiated it will be self-

supporting if the heat released by the combustion process enables the reaction to continue.

 It will continue with a supply of:

– Fuel; – Oxygen; and – Heat

 Combustion, therefore, is a complex dynamic

process, and fires may burn either with or without flames

Combustion of Methane Gas

 Combustion can be expressed as a chemical equation.  An example involving a molecule of methane gas (CH4),

which happens every day on domestic gas cookers would look like this: CH4 + 2O2 = CO2 + 2H2O – 890 kJ

 The equation is balanced and represents the complete

combustion of methane.

 This means that 1 molecule of methane and 2 molecules of

• xygen react to become 1 molecule of carbon dioxide and 2

molecules of water with 890 kilojoules of energy given off in the form of heat and light

– (released heat energy is always expressed as a negative)

Combustion of Methane

Methane + oxygen + heat energy supplied = carbon dioxide + water – heat energy released

33 Exothermic Reactions

 Reactions that release heat are called

exothermic reactions

 Combustion, therefore, is an exothermic

(gives off heat) reaction of a substance with an oxidiser (normally oxygen).

 The reaction requires an input of energy to

initiate it.

 This energy comes from a source of ignition

heat e.g. a spark

Complete Combustion

 Complete combustion, where all oxygen is

consumed in the combustion reaction, is the most efficient combustion of fuel.

 This occurs at the stoichiometric concentration – i.e. when the fuel / oxygen ratio is ideal  The blue flame burning on a gas cooker with no

smoke or yellow flames are an example of the complete combustion process.

Incomplete Combustion

 Complete combustion in uncontrolled fires is rare as

very often flames are relatively starved of oxygen, leading to incomplete combustion.

 Incomplete combustion of organic materials leads to

the production of tarry and sooty decomposition products, i.e. smoke is formed

 Smoke is a heated mixture of air, gases and

particles.

 Carbon monoxide (CO) is also formed during

incomplete combustion

34

Carbon Monoxide

 Carbon monoxide is a colourless, odourless and

tasteless gas usually found wherever incomplete combustion occurs, e.g. domestic boilers, vehicle exhausts, furnaces and steelworks.

 It is a toxic, flammable and explosive gas.  Inhalation of the gas results in headaches,

drowsiness, a flushed ‘pink’ appearance and ultimately in asphyxiation.

Asphyxiation by Carbon Monoxide

 Carbon monoxide is more readily

absorbed by the haemoglobin, the

• xygen carrying part of the red

blood cell, forming carboxyhaemoglobin.

 The supply of oxygen to all body

• rgans, including the brain is

therefore impaired.

Stages of Combustion

 There are three stages to combustion: – Induction – Growth – Decay

35

Stages of Combustion - Induction

 Induction – Incipient Stage - At this stage, decomposition is

• ccurring at the surface of the fuel due to the influence
• f some form of heat. Products of combustion given
• ff at this stage are invisible to the eye.

– Smouldering Stage - At this stage, up to 10% of the

decomposing products released at the surface of the fuel are visible.

 The time required for a fire to develop through these

stages is usually quite long when compared to the growth stage

Stages of Combustion - Growth

 Growth – Flaming Stage (ignition) - Vapours from the

decomposing fuel have ignited and are at the stage where flames are self propagating.

– Heat Stage - At this stage the burning has progressed to

the point where the fire is still small but generating sufficient heat to warm the air immediately around the fire, sending warm products of combustion upwards by convection.

 Depending on conditions, the time involved going through

the induction and growth stages may be anything from seconds to days.

 What factors will affect the growth rate of a fire?

The rate of fire growth is influenced by:

 Supply of oxygen  Percentage of oxygen present  Quantity of fuel available  Physical state of the material (e.g. solids require

more heat input)

 Volatility (vaporisation) of solid and liquid fuels  Calorific value of the fuel, i.e. the heat liberated  Rate of heat transfer to other fuel sources  Containment of heat; and  Fuel / oxygen concentration, which is ideal at the

stoichiometric value

36

Stages of Combustion Steady State and Decay

 Steady state:

– Reached when the fuels that are present within the fire

area are burning at their full potential due to being fed with sufficient oxygen to sustain their maximum burn rate.

 A fire will decay when:

– The source of fuel (combustible materials) diminishes – When the levels of oxygen diminishes – When the intensity of the heat diminishes to a level

where the fire can no longer be sustained (cooling)

Basic Chemical Reactivity

 Endothermic: – In thermodynamics, this describes a process or

reaction that absorbs energy in the form of heat.

– The concept is frequently applied in physical

sciences to e.g. chemical reactions, where chemical bond energy is converted to thermal energy (heat).

 Some examples of endothermic processes are:

– Cooking food – Melting of ice – Depressurising a pressurised can

Endothermic Materials

 Endothermic materials in passive fire protection: – Endothermic substances, both natural, e.g. gypsum, and

synthetic (resin-based), swell as a result of heat exposure

 They are popular for use in: – Heat shielding – Fire-resistive coatings for LPG vessels – Compartmentalisation of fire in buildings, which is the

cornerstone of passive fire protection.

 Typically, the technological basis is the conversion of

hydrates (chemically bound water) into vapour, or steam

37

Basic Chemical Reactivity

 Exothermic:

– The opposite of an endothermic process is an exothermic

process, one that releases energy in the form of heat.

 In an exothermic reaction:

– the total energy absorbed in bond breaking is less than

the total energy released in bond making.

– In other words, the energy needed for the reaction to

• ccur is less than the total energy provided.

– As a result of this, the extra energy is released, usually in

the form of heat.

Exothermic Reactions

 Example exothermic reactions: – Combustion reactions

 Neutralisation reactions for instance direct reaction of

acid and base

 Adding water to concentrated acid  Adding water to anhydrous copper sulphate – Thermite reaction  Reactions taking place in a self-heating can based on

lime and aluminium

Successful Practical Relevant

The Principles and Conditions for the Ignition of Solids, Liquids & Gases

Element 2.2

38

Identification of Sources of Ignition

 Majority of fires need a source of ignition to start.  It is imperative, therefore that an assessment should be

made to identify possible sources of ignition in a workplace.

 Once these have been identified then the area can be

checked for combustible materials.

 Once problem areas have been identified, a study can

be made to assess viability of separating the two.

 If this is not possible some form of control measure

should be taken to minimise the risk of a fire.

Principles of Fire and Explosion

 The physical state of a substance and its ability

to mix with oxygen affect its flammability

Flammable Materials

 Most organic (carbon containing) solids (and

dusts), liquids and gases are flammable e.g.:

– Chemicals; – Electrical equipment; – Paper, card and wood; – Plastics, rubber and foam; – Furniture and textiles; – Fixtures, fittings; and – Waste material

39

Non-Flammable Materials

 Most inorganic (non-carbon containing) substances are non-

flammable, however, there are a few exceptions:

– Aluminium – Magnesium – Titanium  Above 3 used widely in aircraft/warship manufacture – Hydrogen  Emitted during battery charging – Phosphorous – Sulphur  Above 2 used in chemical processes

Ignition of Solid Materials ~ Slide 1



The ease with which a solid will ignite depends upon the type of material and its physical state.



The smaller the particles of material, the easier it is to ignite e.g.

–

A pack of A4 paper will not ignite readily as it is packed sheets with no air in the middle;

–

Separate the sheets and each sheet will be easier to ignite;

–

Shred the pack of A4 paper and it will have lots of air in the middle and again it will be easier to ignite.



When looking at sources and ignition we need to consider the physical state of any potential fuel.

Ignition of Solid Materials ~ Slide 2



Solid material does not actually burn



When involved in a fire the solid will first chemically decompose and produce carbon products in the form of a vapour



It is these vapours that ignite when mixed with

• xygen from the air:

–

Hold a lit match to a piece of paper:

 It will be seen that the paper does not burst

into flames, but chars and goes black

 Vapours are given off and it is these that burn

40

Ignition of Liquids & Gases

 A flammable liquid gives off vapours and it is these

that ignite

 The temperature and rate at which vapours are given

• ff will vary from one flammable liquid to another

 Flammable liquids that more readily release vapours

are said to be more volatile than others

 Some liquids, such as petroleum, readily give off

vapours at room temperature

 Others, such as diesel oil, need to be heated before

they give off sufficient vapours to be a significant risk. Conditions for Ignition to Occur

Ignition occurs when a heat source e.g. a

spark, contains sufficient heat energy to cause combustion of one or more molecules of a flammable vapour or substance.

To avoid ignition the simple principle of

separating the heat and fuel sources can be used. Heat Energy Definitions

 Ignition heat energy has 3 measurements:

– Flash point – Fire point – Auto-ignition temperature

 Other definitions we need to know are:

– Vapour pressure – Vapour density; and – Flammability limits

41

Flash Point

 This is the minimum temperature where flammable

vapours are capable of being ignited momentarily by an outside source of heat, e.g. a spark etc.

 At this temperature, the ignited vapours will flash but

will not continue to burn. Combustion cannot continue as there is insufficient heat generated to replace the vapour that has ignited.

 The flash point of a vapour or gas is one measure of

its fire potential.

 The lower the flash point the greater the hazard.

Fire Point

 The fire point of a fuel is the temperature at which

it will continue to burn after ignition for at least 5 seconds.

 At the flash point, a lower temperature, a substance

will ignite, but vapour might not be produced at a rate to sustain the fire.

 Fire point is the lowest temperature at which a fuel

will produce sufficient vapours to form a mixture in air that continuously supports combustion after ignition.

Auto-ignition Temperature

 The temperature at which combustible materials

ignite spontaneously in air without a spark or flame being present.

 Common fuels auto-ignition temperatures:

– Petroleum

400 oC

– Wood

300 oC

– Kerosene

215 oC

– Propane

480 oC

– Methane

580 oC

42

Vapour Pressure

 Vapour pressure is a measure of the tendency of a material

to form a vapour.

 The higher the vapour pressure, the higher the potential

vapour concentration and the more likely it is to be a fire hazard (they are more volatile) than a similar material with a lower vapour pressure.

 The higher the vapour pressure of a material at a given

temperature, the lower the boiling point.

 The boiling point is the temperature where the vapour

pressure equals the ambient atmospheric pressure.

 All solids and liquids have a tendency to evaporate to a

gaseous form, and all gases have a tendency to condense back to their liquid form.

Other Definitions

 Vapour density: – The density of a gas relative to the density of hydrogen or air at

the same temperature and pressure.

– Worked out by using molecular weights of the atoms concerned. – The figure of vapour density is of little value as it is a theoretical

comparison to hydrogen.

 Relative density: – Is the ratio of the specific density of a substance to the specific

density of a standard substance under specified conditions.

– For vapours and gases, the standard is often air at the same

temperature and pressure.

– If the relative density is less than 1, it makes it lighter than air

and if greater than 1, heavier than air and likely to sink to a lower level.

Other Definitions

 Flammable limits: – Gives the fractions of combustible gases in a mixture,

between which limits this mixture is flammable.

– Gas mixtures consisting of combustible, oxidising, and inert

gases are only flammable under certain conditions.

– The lower flammability limit (LFL) describes the leanest

mixture that is still flammable, i.e. the mixture with the smallest fraction of combustible gas.

– The upper flammability limit (UFL) gives the richest

flammable mixture.

– Increasing the fraction of inert gases in a mixture raises the

LFL and decreases UFL.

43

Successful Practical Relevant

Classifications of Fires

Element 2.3

Classifications of Fires

 Fires are classified into five categories  The category of a fire determines the methods by

which the fire may be tackled to extinguish it

 What type of fire extinguishers that can be used to

put out a fire is also dependent on the category

 Fire extinguisher signage also denotes the

category of fire on which the extinguisher is safe to use

Class A

 Free burning carbonaceous

materials such as paper, wood, card, cloth, rubber, etc.

 The extinguishing mode is by

cooling the heat / ignition source

44

Class B

 Class B is for burning liquids.  It breaks down into two

separate classes:

– B1 - liquids soluble in water

(miscible) such as methanol. These can be extinguished by smothering or cooling

– B2 - liquids insoluble in water

(immiscible) such as petrol and

• ils. These can be extinguished

by smothering

Class C

 Fires that involve

flammable gases or liquefied gases resulting from leaks or spillage

 These are extinguished

by smothering or starving by removing the fuel if safe to do so

Class D

 These are specialist fires that involve metals such

as Aluminium or Magnesium.

 These are extinguished by smothering with graphite

• r talc.

45

Class F

 Covers high temperature

cooking oils and fats in large catering establishments or restaurants.

 These are extinguished by

isolating the source of heat and smothering the fire. Electrical Fires

 Not a class of fire  Could be involved in

any class of fire

 It may be present as

a cause, ignition source or separate hazard

Successful Practical Relevant

Principles of Fire Growth and Fire Spread

Element 2.4

46

Conduction Convection Radiation Direct burning

Principles of Heat Transmission and Fire Spread

 Conduction - spread of heat energy through solids;  Convection - heat transfer through a fluid or gas,

involving expansion and movement;

 Radiation - emission of heat energy through

electromagnetic radiation in the infra-red part of the spectrum, which is then absorbed by matter to varying degrees

 Direct Burning – combustible materials catching fire

through direct contact with flames.

Spread of Fire

 When considering the type of building material to be

used and its application the following criteria should be assessed:

– For safety of people:

 Ignitability  Flammability  Surface spread of flame  Smoke (or gas) release.

– For safety of the building:

 Heat release  Fire resistance  Flame penetration  Smoke (or gas) penetration.

Common Building Materials

47

 The class of a material indicates the speed of surface

spread of flame across that material.

 The classes (class 0 the best) are:

– Class 0 (plasterboard, woodwool slabs, mineral fibre board) – Class 1 (wood treated with a fire retardant coating) – Class 2 (wood pressure treated with fire retardant) – Class 3 (chipboard, plywood, hardwood timber) – Class 4 (soft-board, softwood timber)

 Class 0 is not a true classification, but to be in Class 0 a

material must be Class 1 and must not contribute greatly to the propagation of the fire.

Classification of Building Materials

 Strong in compression, but weak in tension - will be

reinforced with steel in areas where it will be subject to stress (e.g. lower part of a concrete beam)

 The fire resistance of concrete is influenced by: – Size and shape of element – Disposition and properties of reinforcement – The load supported – Type of concrete and aggregate – Conditions of end support  Steel reinforcement when heated up will loose strength  For mild steel 50% of its strength is lost at 550oC, for high

temperature steel this point is at 600oC (critical temperature).

Concrete

 Metals may need surface protection to reduce

risk of fire spread via conduction

 All metals soften and melt at high temperatures  Unprotected steel may give rise to danger of

collapse in a fire when it is heated to a temperature where it has lost 2/3

rds of its strength

 Metals expand when heated  The expansion in a long beam could be enough

to push out walls leading to structure collapse

Metals

48

 Advantages: – Reduction in weight (1/3

rd the weight of steel)

– Resistance to corrosion – Ease of working and handling – High strength to weight ration  Disadvantages: – Very rapid loss of strength in a fire (100oC to 225oC) – High expansion rate (twice that of steel) – High thermal conductivity (3 times that of steel) – Low melting points (658oC for pure aluminium)

Metals ~ Aluminium Alloys

 The following methods can be used to protect

metal structural members:

– Solid protection  Sprayed or applied mineral coating  Intumescent coatings – Hollow protection  Hollow section filled with water  Using lightweight blocks of concrete to fill hollow webs

• f beams

– Design features such as fire retardant suspended

ceilings

Protection of Metal Structural Members

 An intumescent is a substance which

swells as a result of heat exposure, thus increasing in volume, and decreasing in density.

 Intumescents are typically endothermic to

varying degrees, as they can contain chemically bound water

 Intumescents are used in fire-stopping

and fire-proofing applications in buildings

Intumescent Materials

49

 Normally consists of two outer skins of sheet metal (a

light alloy) with an infill of heat insulating material (e.g. polyurethane or styrene foam)

 Use giving rise to great concern: – Buildings constructed of sandwich panels are liable to

sudden, unpredictable collapse when a fire occurs

– Panels falling out of their framework further accelerate

spread of fire

– Exposed/heated foam breaks down into volatile

flammable toxic gases

 Fire brigades tend to use a non-attack strategy

Sandwich Panels

 There are two basic types: – Thermoplastics which when heated will soften

and melt

– Thermosetting; sets to a hard infusible form  Plastic materials are composed of combustible

• rganic material

 Have limited resistance to fire and fire spread  Most when exposed to fire emit a considerable

amount of smoke and toxic fumes

Plastics

 Non-combustible material  Will not contribute to the fire load (amount of combustible

material) of a building

 Standard glass panels in doors/walls create a weak point in

fire compartmentation

 Fire resisting glazing can give up to 11/2 hours fire resistance  Wired glass (usually 6mm thick and up to 1.6 m2 in area) can

give up to 11/2 hours fire resistance

 Laminated glass (Pyran) comprising of 3 to 5 layers of glass

with interlayers of intumescent material which reacts at 120oC to form an opaque shield and prevents radiated heat from passing through

Glazing Materials

50

Effects of Building Construction

 In addition to the materials used to construct the building, the

actual construction of a building can increase the risk of fire growth e.g.:

– Large open areas with little of no fire compartmentation

and can result in flashover

– Voids behind wall panelling – False ceilings with open voids above – Vertical shafts such as lifts – Open stairwells – Doors that are ill-fitting, damaged or wedged open – Holes in fire resistant structures (to permit pipes and

cabling to be installed)

Effects of Contents

 HSG 64 “Assessment of Fire Hazards from Solid Materials”

materials are categorised into high and normal risk.

 The risk category is determined by the amount of smoke

produced by the material and maximum rate of temperature rise.

 Items that scored as high risk in both tests include: – Acrylic fibre – Acrylic mixture – Acrylic over locks – Expanded polystyrene – Flexible polyether (Poly Urethane foam) – Polypropylene sliver – Rigid Poly Urethane foam (low density)  A fire burning outside of a building: – Hot gases of combustion will rise into the atmosphere – Will not have much effect on the materials involved in the fire  As a result, the speed of fire growth is generally slower

than it would be in a confined space

Open Burning Fire

51

 Heat and gases build up will

have a greater effect on the material involved in the fire

 The speed of fire growth can

be devastating

 Two specific phenomena

contributing to fire growth are:

– Flashover – Backdraught

Physically Enclosed Burning Fire

 Can occur if a fire is free burning in a room

– Must have a good supply of air e.g. large room, open

door, open window or ventilation system

 The radiated heat heats up all other material in

the room until they reach their spontaneous ignition temperature

 Items in the room instantly ignite  Gives impression that the fire has ‘flashed over’

from one side of the room to another

Flashover

 To occur a fire must start in a closed room environment

(doors/windows closed & little air flow)

 Burning fire will use up oxygen in room  Fire will die down, but often does not go out  A smouldering fire remains that fills room with high

temperature smoke (flammable gases mixed with fuel particles that would normally be burnt off)

 If someone opens a door, oxygen is allowed to enter

and the flammable gas/fuel can instantly ignite if they are at their spontaneous ignition temperature

 If it happens, it will be with an explosive force driving

flames out of the opening at 10 m/sec and 1100oC

Backdraught

52

 Cold smoke will spread laterally, possibly at low level,

with a principle hazard of low visibility

 Hot smoke: – Is a fuel above its ignition temperature and will

spontaneously combust when it reaches available oxygen.

– It will be carried with the convection current produced by

the combustion process

– It will spread laterally across the ceiling then upwards at

every opportunity

– Due to its buoyant nature, it can travel a considerable

distance from the seat of the fire

Smoke Spread in Buildings

 Smoke consists of: – Unburnt carbonaceous material – Gases that are both flammable and toxic  The majority of gases in smoke will be: – Carbon monoxide – Toxins such as hydrogen chloride from combustion of

electrical conductor insulation

– Cyanide compounds from combustion of synthetic

upholstery form infill

 These gases will quickly render people unconscious

and cause death, which could explain why

– The majority of people who die from fires that occur

when they are asleep tend not to attempt to escape

Smoke

Successful Practical Relevant

Principles of Explosion and Explosive Combustion

Element 2.5

53

Explosions and Definitions ~ 1

 Explosion:

– an abrupt oxidation, or decomposition reaction

that produces an increase in temperature, or pressure, or in both temperature and pressure simultaneously.

 Explosive Atmosphere:

– flammable substances in the form of gases,

vapours, mists or dusts mixed with air under atmospheric conditions, which, after ignition has

• ccurred, combustion spreads to the entire

unburned mixture.

Explosions and Definitions ~ 2

 Deflagration

– process of subsonic combustion that usually

propagates through thermal conductivity (hot burning material heats the next layer of cold material and ignites it).

 Detonation

– process of supersonic combustion in which a

shock wave is propagated forward due to energy release in a reaction zone behind it. It is the more powerful of the two general classes of combustion, the other being deflagration

Explosions and Definitions ~ 3

 BLEVE – Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapour Explosion:

– an explosion due to the flashing of liquids when a vessel

with a high vapour pressure substance fails

 CGE – Confined Gas Explosion:

– explosion within tanks, process equipment, sewage

systems, underground installations, closed rooms, etc.

 UVCE – Unconfined Vapour Cloud Explosion:

– a vapour/gas explosion (deflagration or detonation) in an

unconfined, unobstructed close

54

Mechanism of Explosion

 An explosion is the “rapid flame propagation

throughout an area containing flammable gases, vapours and other dusts”.

 The substance has to be mixed with air in such

proportions that the mixture is within flammability range of the substance.

 Gas/vapour/dust clouds can be ignited and

cause explosions in both confined and unconfined states.

Gas/Vapour/Dust Cloud Ignition ~ 1

 When a cloud is ignited, the flame can propagate in

two different modes through it. These modes are:

– Deflagration – Detonation

 The most common mode is deflagration.  During deflagration the flame front travels at

subsonic speeds through the unburned gas; typical flame speeds do no reach higher than 300m/s.

 The pressure developed in front of the flame

explosion may reach values of several bars.

Gas/Vapour/Dust Cloud Ignition ~ 2

 The speed of travel of the flame front during detonation is

supersonic.

 In a fuel/air cloud a detonation wave will move at speeds of

between 1500 and 2000m/s and the peak pressure in front of the flame can reach 15 to 20 bar.

 The pressure front when enclosed can cause substantial

damage including the collapse of structures.

 Where ignition of the cloud is from a weak source e.g. a hot

surface, the ignition will initially start as a slow burning deflagration.

 When deflagration becomes sufficiently rapid, a sudden

transition to detonation may occur.

55

Explosions

 Unconfined explosions can cause devastation over

a large area (e.g. Buncefield explosion)

 Explosions can occur with such gases as

hydrogen, propane and acetylene.

 Dusts that can also be sources of explosions

include aluminium, coal, flour and polythene.

 In a dust explosion, there is an initial smaller

“Primary Explosion” which is then followed by a devastating “Secondary Explosion”.

Lower & Upper Explosion Limits

 The explosive limit of gases/vapours, is the limiting

concentration (in air) that is needed for the gas to ignite and explode.

 There are two explosive limits for any gas or vapour: – lower explosive limit (LEL) & upper explosive limit (UEL).  At concentrations in air below the LEL there is not enough

fuel to continue an explosion;

 At concentrations above the UEL the fuel has displaced so

much air that there is not enough oxygen to begin a reaction. Concentrations of explosive gases are often given in terms

• f percent of lower explosive limit (%LEL).

Conditions for Gas Explosions

 The atmosphere into which the gas is dispersed

must contain sufficient oxidant to support combustion

 The gas must have a concentration within the

explosive range (LEL and UEL)

 The gas cloud must be in contact with an ignition

source of sufficient energy to cause ignition

56

Conditions for Dust Explosions ~ Slide 1

 The dust must be explosible  The dust must have a particle size distribution that will

allow propagation of flame

 The atmosphere into which the dust is dispersed as a

cloud or suspension must contain sufficient oxidant to support combustion

 The dust cloud must have a concentration within the

explosive range

 The dust cloud must be in contact with an ignition

source of sufficient energy to cause ignition

Conditions for Dust Explosions ~ Slide 2

 Dust particles larger than 400µm are not

combustible.

 Particles are combustible when they measure from

20µm and up to 400µm

 Dust is combustible within certain concentration

parameters:

– lower combustibility limit: approx. 20 to 60 g/m3 air – upper combustibility limit: approx. 2 to 6 kg/m3 air

Dust Explosions – Types of Material

 The types of material that often cause dust

explosions include:

– Coal and peat – Metals such as iron, zinc, aluminium – Natural organic materials such as grain, lime,

sugar etc.

– Process materials such as plastics, organic

pigments (paint), pesticides etc.

57

Classification of Explosions

 An explosion that occurs within vessels, pipes, tunnels

• r channels will be classified as a confined gas

explosion (CGE)

 An explosion which occurs in process plants or

unconfined areas will be classified as an unconfined vapour cloud explosion (UVCE)

 Where the cloud is formed by a liquid rapidly expanding

from a ruptured vessel which is substantially above is boiling point (e.g. liquid methane in a tanker which is on fire), that is then ignited causing it to detonate, is classified as a Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapour Explosion (BLEVE)

Principles of Explosion Management

 These principles are given in of The Dangerous Substance

and Explosive Atmospheres Regulations (DSEAR):

– Reduce quantity of dangerous substances held – Avoid or minimise the release of the substance – Control of the release at source – Prevent of the formation of an explosive atmosphere

(includes ventilation)

– Ensure any release is suitably collected, safely contained

and removed to a safe place or rendered safe

– Avoid ignition sources in area and adverse conditions

which could give rise to harmful physical effects

– The segregation of incompatible substances.

Principle of Gas/Vapour Explosion Suppression

 Controlling gas and vapour concentrations outside the

explosive limits is a major consideration in occupational safety and health.

 Methods used include use of: – Dilution ventilation; – Sweep gas, an inert gas such as nitrogen or argon to

dilute the explosive gas before coming in contact with air;

– Scrubbers or adsorption resins to remove explosive

gases before release are also common.

 Gases can also be maintained safely at concentrations

above the UEL, although a breach in the storage container can lead to explosive conditions or intense fires

58

Principle of Dust Explosion Suppression

 Controlling sources of ignition (covered later)  Inerting: – The addition of inert substances to either the dust or

the atmosphere to prevent the formation of explosible dust clouds

 Typical equipment in which explosions are prevented by

inerting are:

– Enclosed reactors, mixers, mills, dryers, oven filters

and dust collectors

– Hoppers and silos – Conveyors and bucket elevators

Dust Inerting Types

 Diluent dust addition: – Render explosible dust non-explosible by acting as

a heat sink or interfering with flame propagation (e.g. calcium sulphate, limestone, sodium bicarbonates, various silicates etc.)

 Use of an inert gas: – Involves the partial or complete substitution, by inert

gas, of the air with which the dust is mixed. The choice of inert gas depends on a number of factors. Choices include carbon dioxide, nitrogen, argon, helium, steam, flue gases etc.

Mitigating Effects of an Explosion

 Bursting Discs: – Plant and machinery have a bursting disc built into them.

This is a weak spot that is designed to rupture at a pre- determined pressure. This will vent the pressure immediately and prevent a more damaging explosion

• ccurring.

59

Sources of Reference and Statutory Instruments

 INDG 227 – Safe working with flammable substances  HSG 140 – Safe use and handling of flammable liquids  HSG 103 – Safe handling of combustible dusts ~ precautions

against explosions

 FIS2 – Dust suppressions in the food industry  The Classification, Labelling and Packaging (CLP) of

Substances Regulations 2015 (a European Regulation)

 The Dangerous Substances and Explosive Atmospheres

Regulations 2002

 Building Regulations 2010 Approved Document B ~ Fire

Safety

 The Regulatory Reform (Fire Safety) Order 2005 Schedule 4

Successful Practical Relevant

NEBOSH Fire Certificate The Causes and Prevention of Fires

Element 3 Element 3 Learning Outcomes

 On completion of this element candidates should be

able to:

– Explain the causes of fires and explosions in

typical work activities;

– Outline appropriate control measures to minimise

fire risk

60

Successful Practical Relevant

Causes of Fires and Explosion in Typical Work Activities

Element 3.1

Accidental Fires

 Account for 57% of all fires in the UK  They can be grouped into the following: – Careless actions (26%) – Misuse of equipment and appliances

(24%)

– Defective equipment (50%) 78% being due to faulty appliances

and leads

Common Sources of Ignition

 Electrical faults  Overloaded circuits  Overheating equipment  Static Electricity  Use of non-intrinsically safe

electrical / electronic equipment

 Radiated heat from

legitimate sources such as light bulbs

 Hot surfaces such as

soldering irons etc

 Smokers’ material  Sparks from:  Welding equipment  Electrical equipment  Grinding equipment  Oxy-acetylene welding  Fixed or portable heaters  Cooking equipment  Bitumen boilers  Steam pipes

61

Storage of Flammable Materials

 Common causes fires involving storage of flammable

materials:

– Lack of awareness of their properties – Operator error, due to lack of training – Inadequate or poor storage facilities – Hot work to close to containers – Exposure to heat from nearby fires – Inadequate control of ignition sources – Dismantling or disposing of containers – Inadequate design, installation or maintenance of equipment – Decanting flammable materials in unsuitable storage areas

Transportation in Workplace

 Incidents common occur in handling operations, including:

– Movement from storage or within the premises – Decanting or dispensing – Unsecured storage within a vehicle – Emptying vehicle fuel tanks – Dealing with spillages

 Common causes:

– Lack of awareness of their properties – Operator error due to lack of training – Inadequate or poor transport facilities – Absence of spillage strategies – Electrostatic discharge – Poor design, installation or maintenance of pipe installations

Smokers Material and Lightning

 Smokers material:

– Causes 7% of accidental fires in non-

residential premises

– Prohibiting smoking except in designated

areas is an effective control

 Lightning:

– Strikes on buildings (especially tall

• nes) can cause power surges and

faults in equipment an cables

– Can be hazard in farms where chemical

substances are stored

– Protection often effected by earthing

rods

62

Construction and Maintenance Work

 Many serious fires occur in existing buildings during

maintenance and construction work

 Increased fire risks are present during these

activities

 Additional fire precautions needed  May be necessary to carry out new fire risk

assessment to include new hazards e.g.

– Additional sources of ignition – Additional sources of combustible materials

 Materials can obstruct escape routes if not

adequately controlled Construction & Maintenance Work Issues

 Accumulation of flammable waste and building materials  Obstruction or loss of exits and exit routes  Flammable products being introduced (adhesives/gases)  Materials stored in unusual locations (roof/basement)  Boxes being stored in corridors  Off cuts of wood and sawdust left in work areas  Packing from materials  Pallets and plastic covering left where materials were used  Flammable liquids not controlled  Bulk storage not kept outside away from buildings/sources of heat  Part empty pots or tubes of adhesive  Waste disposal procedures

Other Possible Construction Hazards

 Demolition:

– Flammable materials from previous use – Residues in old storage tanks – Flammable liquids/gases in confined spaces – Use of bonfires to dispose of some waste materials

 Use of oxy-fuel equipment:

– Welding – Hot work

 Temporary electrical installations:

– Incorrect standards/specifications for the work – Trailing cables and leads

63

Arson Statistics – England Arson – Statistics for England

 Each week there are on average 1,416 fires recorded as

• ccurring in England (2015-2016 statistics) of which 372

are arson attacks.

 Weekly arson attacks include: – 274 secondary fires (excluding outdoor fires) e.g. fires

involving refuse and single derelict buildings.

– 11 outdoor fires (brush, trees, crops, grassland etc.) – 48 involving road vehicles (usually to cover a crime) – 15 in dwellings – 22 in other buildings (e.g. businesses, schools etc)

Arson – Motives and Signs

 Possible motives:

– Vandalism / boredom – Concealment of crime – Insurance fraud – Jealous competitor – Pyromaniac – Attention seeking

 Signs of arson:

– Multiple seats of fire – Use of an accelerant – Forced entry – Fire in an unnatural position – Movement of goods /

combustibles prior to fire

– Disablement of fire detection /

extinguishment systems

64

Arson – Influencing Factors

 Location of premises (many arson attacks related

to general societal problems)

 Premises built in run down inner city area are at

greater risk than those in rural areas

 Position of building to public roadway  Frequency of people passing by  Potential of building to trespass (may set fire to

rubbish bins, skips, vehicles etc)

Successful Practical Relevant

Appropriate Control Measures to Minimise Fire Risks

Element 3.2

Arson and Security

Good levels of security an effective deterrent

 External:

– Control of people having

access to the building or site

– Use of patrol guards – Lighting at night – Safety of keys – Structural protection – Site of rubbish bins at least

8m from buildings

 Internal:

– Good housekeeping – Inspections – Clear access routes – Visitor supervision – Control of sub-

contractors

– Audits

65

Preventing Arson

 Management trained to be prepared for arson  Perimeter security issues addressed  Secured access into premises (roller shutters)  Active measures (CCTV, intruder alarms etc.)  Storage facilities kept away from external walls  Waste bins etc kept minimum of 8m from walls  Secured wheeled waste receptacles  Regular disposal of waste from site  Removal of dry vegetation close to premises  Awareness children gaining access especially during school

holidays

Prevention of Fire In Use Flammable Materials

 In use quantities kept to a minimum, excess

quantities correctly stored

 If large quantities used, consider piped systems  Container lids always replaced after use  Rags impregnated with product disposed of safely  Common electrical earth bonding in areas where

dispensing / charging containers with flammable materials is carried out

 Only trained and competent operatives to use

flammable materials. Prevention of Fire Storage of Flammable Materials

 Keep quantities to a minimum  Up to 50 litres of highly flammable liquids in a fire resisting container  Use external storage – should provide 30 minutes fire resistance  Keep storage areas well ventilated  Store flammable liquids in a bunded area, or use a drip tray  Keep empty containers separate to full ones  Prevent possible external damage to storage containers  Isolate damaged or leaking containers  Create separation between storage containers / limit height of stacks  Use of flame proof lighting in storage areas  Permit only authorised access  Signage and training of persons involve in storage operations

66

Prevention of Fire Transport within the Workplace

 If large quantities used, consider piped systems  Purpose designed metal flameproof containers used to

transport small quantities with lids and anti-spill features

 Checks on container lids before moving  Palletised containers to be made secure before moving  Hazard warning signs displayed on containers  Common electrical earth bonding in areas where dispensing

/ charging containers with flammable materials is carried out

 Only trained and competent operatives to transport

flammable materials

Safe Storage

V I C E S

 Ventilation – provide plenty of fresh air to rapidly

disperse and vapours

 Ignition – control ignition sources  Containment – use suitable containers and

provide spillage control

 Exchange – consider whether a safer alternative

can be used to do the task

 Separation – store away from process areas

(physical barrier, wall or partition where possible)

Housekeeping

 Good housekeeping will reduce the likelihood of fire  Poor housekeeping not only affects the ease with

which a fire can occur, develop and spread, but can lead to:

– Blocked fire exits – Obstructed escape routes – Difficulty in accessing fire alarm call points, extinguishers

and hose reels

– Obstruction of vital signs and notices – A reduction in the effectiveness of automatic fire detectors

and sprinklers.

67

Fire Safety Checks and Inspections

 Fire safety checks and inspections should: – Help prevent fires in the workplace – Ensure escape routes are clear of obstructions – Monitor fire safety standards – Keep staff aware of fire safety issues – Reinforce the role of employees, supervisors,

managers and fire marshals

Fire Safety Audit

 A systematic review of fire prevention arrangements

should be carried out by means of an audit at agreed intervals

 It will be carried out by a Fire Safety Manager  It will verify the quality/appropriateness of the

inspection system, maintenance arrangements and understanding of the roles of those with specific responsibility

 The assurance of fire safety arrangements should

increase as a result of having audits

Safe Waste Disposal

Considerations:

 Does waste give off flammable vapours, if so is there

the potential for them to be ignited?

 Is the waste in a dust format and if disturbed can it

create a flammable dust cloud?

 How easy will it be for an arsonist to gain access to

the waste and ignite them?

 If waste is ignited, what will be the effects?  Does the waste need to be removed by a specialist

company?

 Are hazards created by current disposal methods?

68

Safe Systems of Work

 A system to manage residual risks after the

controls identified by the risk assessment have been implemented

 An agreement between management and staff

defining how to perform tasks safely

 Normally a written procedure, but can be oral

depending on the level of risk involved

 Needs to ensure that fire hazards are not created

• r risks of fires occurring increased

Minimising Fire Risk

 Safe operating procedures

– Used to ensure unnecessary fire hazards or risks are not

introduced

 Planned and preventive maintenance

– Used to ensure mechanical or electrical defects are not

the cause of fires

 Management of contractors

– Contractors on site increase the risk of fires, choosing

competent contractors who have a good safety record can reduce this risk.

 Permits to work

– Most commonly used is a ‘hot work permit’

Safe Systems of Work - Considerations

 People: – Behavioural traits, knowledge, skill, awareness,

training and level of supervision

 Equipment: – Safe use, suitable environment and maintenance  Materials: – Type, form and exposure to possible ignition

sources

 Environment: – Heating, lighting and ventilation

69

Existing Buildings Potential Construction Work Problems

 Accumulation of flammable waste and building materials  The obstruction or loss of an exit or exit routes  Fire doors propped open or missing  Openings being created in fire resisting structures  Introduction of additional electrical equipment or other

sources of ignition

 Introduction of flammable materials e.g. adhesives  Possibility of false alarms due to dust setting off detectors  Covers being left off detectors close to work  Disconnection of fire protective systems e.g. sprinklers  Introduction of contractors into site who may not be aware of

the hazards present (e.g. bypassed induction procedure)

Classification, Labelling and Packaging (CLP) Regulations 2015

 The regulation requires companies to appropriately

classify, label and package their substances and mixtures before placing them on the market.

 It aims to protect workers, consumers and the

environment by labelling that reflects a particular chemical's possible hazards.

 It also addresses the notification of classifications,

the establishment of a list of harmonised classifications and the creation of a classification and labelling inventory, as required by REACH. Classification, Labelling and Packaging (CLP) Regulations 2015

 Physio-Chemical Properties: – Explosive – Oxidizing – Extremely flammable - FP <23oC – Highly flammable – FP <32oC – Flammable – FP => 32oC – Pressurised Non-hazard  Environmental: – Acute and Chronic Toxicity to

the aquatic environment

– Hazardous to the ozone layer

*FP = Flash Point

 Health Effects: – Acute toxicity – Chronic toxicity – Harmful – Corrosive – Irritant – Sensitising (inhalation/skin) – Carcinogenic (Cat 1/3) – Mutagenic (Cat 1/3) – Toxic for reproduction (Cat

1/3)

70

Dangerous Substances and Explosive Atmospheres Regulations 2002 (DSEAR)

 Employers must: – find out what dangerous substances are in their workplace and

what the risks are;

– put control measures in place to either remove those risks or,

where this is not possible, control them;

– put controls in place to reduce the effects of any incidents

involving dangerous substances;

– prepare plans and procedures to deal with accidents, incidents

and emergencies involving dangerous substances;

– make sure employees are properly informed about and trained

to control or deal with the risks from the dangerous substances;

– identify and classify areas of the workplace where explosive

atmospheres may occur and avoid ignition sources (from unprotected equipment, for example) in those areas.

DSEAR Hazardous Zone Classifications

Zone 0 Explosive atmosphere in air with gas, vapour or mist present continuously, or for long periods of time. Zone 1 Explosive atmosphere in air with gas, vapour or mist likely to

• ccur in normal operations occasionally.

Zone 2 Explosive atmosphere in air with gas, vapour or mist not likely to occur in normal operations, but if it does it will be for a short period only. Zone 20 Explosive atmosphere in air with a cloud of combustible dust present continuously, or for long periods of time. Zone 21 Explosive atmosphere in air with a cloud of dust likely to occur in normal operations occasionally. Zone 22 Explosive atmosphere in air with dust not likely to occur in normal operations, but if it does it will be for a short period only.

Control of Major Accident Hazards Regulations 2015 (COMAH)

 Applicable to any establishment storing or otherwise handling large

quantities of industrial chemicals of a hazardous nature.

 Types of establishments include chemical warehousing, chemical

production facilities and some distributors.

 The regulations operate on two levels depending on the

establishment's status which is divided into two categories, 'Lower Tier' and 'Upper Tier', determined by inventory.

 Lower tier establishments are required to document a Major

Accident Prevention Policy (MAPP).

 A top tier COMAH establishment is required to produce a full safety

report which demonstrates that all necessary measures have been taken to minimise risks posed by the site with regard to the environment and local populations (i.e. on site and off site emergency plans).

71

Successful Practical Relevant

NEBOSH Fire Certificate Fire Protection in Buildings

Element 4

Overall Aims

For the candidates to be able to:

 Outline the means of fire protection and prevention of fire

spread within buildings in relation to building construction and design;

 Explain the requirements of a means of escape;  Outline the methods and systems available to give early

warning in cases of fire, both for life safety and property protection;

 Outline the selection procedures for basic fire extinguishing

methods for both life risk and process risk;

 Explain the requirements for ensuring access for the fire

service is provided and maintained.

Successful Practical Relevant

The Means of Fire Protection and Prevention

• f Fire Spread within Buildings in Relation to

Building Construction and Design

Element 4.1

72

Building Regulations 2010

 Powers to make building regulations contained in Building

Act 1984

 The Act provides that they may be made for the purpose of: – Securing the health, safety, welfare and convenience of

persons in or about the buildings

– For furthering the conservation of fuel and power – For preventing waste, misuse or contamination of water  Current building regulations contain a broad range functional

requirements to which building work must comply, covering:

– structure, fire safety, sound insulation, ventilation,

conservation of fuel and power, facilities and access for disabled people etc.

 They are grouped under 16 parts (A, B, C thro’ to R)

Building Regs 2010 Fire Safety Approved Document B 2010 Edition

 Covers:

• B1 - Means of warning and escape
• B2 - Internal fire spread (linings)
• B3 - Internal fire spread (structure)
• B4 - External fire spread
• B5 - Access and facilities for the fire service

Internal Fire Spread - B2 (Linings)

 Covers:

– Partitions / Walls / Ceilings or Internal structures

 Requirement:

– To inhibit the spread of fire in a building, the

internal linings shall:

Adequately resist the spread of flames over

their surfaces; and

Have, if ignited, a rate of heat release or a rate

• f fire growth, which is reasonable in the

circumstances

73

Internal Fire Spread - B3 (Structure)

 Requirement:

– Buildings to be designed/constructed so that, in a

fire, it keeps it’s stability for a reasonable period

– A wall common to two or more buildings shall be

designed and constructed so that it adequately resists the spread of fire.

– To inhibit spread, buildings shall be sub-divided

with fire resisting construction.

– Buildings shall be designed so that the unseen

spread of fire and smoke within concealed spaces is inhibited

Elements of a Building Structure

 With a few exceptions given in the BR ‘Approved

Document B’, the following are defined as structure elements:

– A member forming part of the structural frame of

a building or any other beam or column;

– A load bearing wall or load bearing part of a wall – A floor – A gallery – An external wall – A compartment wall

Requirement for Fire Resistance for Structure Elements

 Required to maintain the integrity of fire compartments  If a service penetrates vertical or horizontal compartments it

should not decrease fire resistance

 Fire resistant structures found in many forms: – Typical brick, block work and plaster finish structures can

give in excess of 1 hours fire resistance

– Hollow partition stud wall with plasterboard finish both

sides will give 30 minutes fire resistance

 Common failing is unauthorised openings being made in the

fire resistant structure

 Any holes made should be made good with fire resistant

materials of equal or better standard than the original

74

Factors to Consider About Fire Resistance of Structure Elements

 Potential fire severity  Building height  Building occupancy  Resistance to collapse – Load bearing capacity of an element also know as

stability; its ability to withstand the load on it under fire conditions

 Fire penetration – Integrity; the ability of a structure element to prevent

failure

 Transfer of excessive heat – Insulation of structure elements to prevent spread of fire

Compartmentation

 Designed to prevent spread of fire from one part of a building

to another

 Regulations limit size of compartments in certain buildings  Single storey factory units can have one large compartment  Achieved by use of compartment walls and floors which should

withstand a fire for a minimum of 30 minutes (dependent on the purpose and use of building)

 Fire should be contained in the compartment by the nature of

the fire resistant materials used

 Stairwells and ducts should also form separate compartments

to prevent vertical spread

 Large compartments may be fitting with sprinkler systems in an

attempt to limit the size and spread of fire

Protection of Openings in Compartmentation

 Openings in fire compartmentation gives rise to the

potential for fire to spread

 Doors are typically set into fire compartments and

will need to have a degree of fire resistance

 Need to be in good state of repair, fit correctly and be

closed in the event of a fire

 Steel fire shutters are another way of preventing fire

spread and are often used in theatres

 Fire dampers in ducting to close off air ventilation

and circulation systems in the event of a fire

 Fire dampers (shutters) should be fitted in line with

the remainder of the buildings fire compartmentation.

75

Fire Stopping

 The build up of heat and smoke in the area of a fire will be

driven through even the smallest of openings

 It is essential that openings and gaps that breach fire

resistant lines are fire stopped to limit fire spread

 Traditionally done using bricks / mortar, installing fire

dampers / shutters in ducting etc.

 Now also achieved by using intumescent materials to fill

gapes or intumescent grills in ducting

 An intumescent: – A substance which swells as a result of heat exposure, thus

increasing in volume, and decreasing in density

– Are typically used in passive fire protection especially around

doors

Protection of Concealed Spaces (Cavities)

 Large voids can be routes for fire, smoke and gases to spread  Fire can spread quickly & go unnoticed until it is too late  Compartmentation of concealed spaces and cavities is therefore

essential

 Often achieved by using retardant blankets suspended from the

upper face of a void and spanning the entire space

– Rock wool mineral fibre is often used for these blankets  They produce a fire barrier and thus limits fire spread

Rock and Slag Wool

 Properties: – Excellent thermal

insulation

– Excellent fire

resistance

– Excellent sound

absorption

– Mould, fungi and

bacteria resistant

76

 The class of a material indicates the speed of surface

spread of flame across that material.

 The classes (Class ‘0’ best) are:

– Class 0 (plasterboard, woodwool slabs, mineral fibre board) – Class 1 (wood treated with a fire retardant coating) – Class 2 (pressure treated timber) – Class 3 (chipboard, plywood, hardwood timber) – Class 4 (soft-board, softwood timber)

 Class 0 is not a true classification, but to be in Class 0 a

material must be Class 1 and must not contribute greatly to the propagation of the fire.

Classification of Building Materials

 Normally consists of two outer skins of sheet metal (a

light alloy) with an infill of heat insulating material (in the past this use to be polyurethane or styrene foam)

 Use giving rise to great concern: – Buildings constructed of sandwich panels are liable to

sudden, unpredictable collapse when a fire occurs

– Panels falling out of their framework further accelerate

spread of fire

– Exposed/heated foam breaks down into volatile

flammable toxic gases

 Fire brigades tend to use a non-attack strategy  In recent times they have been used as cladding.

Sandwich Panels

Internal Fire Growth & Lining Materials

 Building boards and slabs classification examples:

Plasterboard Woodwool slabs Mineral fibre board Chipboard Plywood Softboard

 Escape routes and circulation spaces within buildings

should have both ceilings and walls comprising materials

• f Class ‘0’ standard

Class 0 Class 0 Class 0 Class 3 Class 3 Class 4

77

Internal Fire Growth & Lining Materials

 Wall linings should not be easily ignitable  Consideration to be given to potential growth of fire

and possibility of flashover

Wall Lining Flashover Time

Dense non-combustible material e.g. brick 23 mins 30 secs Fibre insulation board with skim of plaster 12 minutes Hardboard with 2 coats of flat oil paint 8 mins 15 secs Non-combustible insulating material 8 minutes

External Fire Spread – B4

 Requirement, having regard to the height,

use and positioning of the building:

– The external walls of the building shall

adequately resist the spread of fire over the walls and from one building to another

– The roof of the building shall adequately

resist the spread of fire over the roof and from one building to another. External Fire Spread – Slide 1

 Construction of external walls and the separation between

buildings can prevent external spread of fire

 The likelihood of spread depends on: – Size and intensity of the fire in the building concerned – Distance between the buildings – Fire protection given by the facing sides of the buildings  Controlling external fire spread – External walls constructed of a material that prevents or

reduces the risk of ignition from an external source and the spread of fire over its surface

– Unprotected openings limited to reduce risk of thermal

radiation affecting an adjacent building

– Roof constructed so that risk of spread of flame and/or

fire penetration from an external source is limited

78

External Fire Spread – Slide 2

 Construction of external walls and roofs: – Structure must be able to withstand effects

• f fire

– Minimum fire resistance for structure

elements is 30 minutes and often 60 minutes

– Fire resistance requirements can be

affected by proximity of adjacent buildings and site boundary. External Fire Spread – Slide 3

 Distance between buildings: – Critical distance is 1 metre – less and building

regulations will impose various requirements

– Amount of unprotected openings in a wall

facing another building is another factor

An unprotected opening is an opening with a

lower fire resistance than the minimum requirement for the wall itself (e.g. a window in a brick wall)

Again requirements are greater if distance is

less than 1 metre

Successful Practical Relevant

Means of Escape

Element 4.2

79

Means of Escape – B1

 Requirement:

– The building shall be designed and

constructed so that there are appropriate provisions for the early warning of fire, and appropriate means of escape in case of fire from the building to a place of safety outside the building capable of being safely and effectively used at all material times. Means of Escape Definitions/Guidance

 Means of escape:

– Route(s) provided to ensure safe egress from the

premises or other location to a place of total safety

 Place of total safety:

– A place away from the premises in which people are

at no immediate danger from the effects of fire

 Guidance:

– BS5588 Pt II Fire Precautions in the Design,

Construction and Use of Buildings (best practice, but has no legal status)

General Principles of Escape

 There should be alternative means of escape from

most situations

 Where direct escape is not possible, should be able

to reach a place of “reasonable safety”

 Escape routes will often consist of two parts: – The first being the unprotected workplace or

accommodation and circulation areas

– The second, protected stairways (and some

protected corridors)

80

Alternative Routes

 There is a possibility that a single escape route to a

place of safety may become impassable

 Alternative routes should be provided so people can

move away from smoke and flames

 Sometimes alternative routes not possible and a single

route can be accepted as providing reasonable safety dependant on?

– Use of building and associated fire risk – Size and height of building – Extent of number of dead ends – Numbers of persons accommodated within the

building

Maximum Travel Distances

 Not possible to set maximum distances that

would universally apply to travel to the final exit point

 Codes of practice sets out guidance on

reasonable distances for a given situation (next slide)

 Guidance should only be exceeded if a

suitable and sufficient fire risk assessment has determined that a less than average risk can be established. Escape Distances Table

81

Measuring Escape Distances

Measuring Escape Distances

Escape Times

 Everyone in the building should be able to get to the

nearest place of safety (‘total’ or ‘reasonable safety’) in between 2 and 3 minutes

 If there is only one means of escape, or where the risk

• f fire is high, the escape time should only be 1 minute

 Regardless of the nature of the building the means of

escape should be as short as possible

 The reaction time of people before they begin a fire

evacuation should also be taken into account

 All these points should be considered when carrying out

the Fire Risk Assessment

82

Number & Size of Escape Routes

 Where possible existing means of entrance to

and exit from the building should be used

 These doors should be considered for suitability

• f location, number and width

– If sufficient, additional routes not necessary – If insufficient, further exits should be

considered

 Minimum width of an exit should be 750 mm  More than one exit should be provided if more

than 60 people are in a room or building

Occupancy Calculations

 Can be simply carried out by checking the numbers

using a work area

 However, possible changes to work area, may vary

the occupancy levels

 Depending on the type of situation there are

requirements for empty calculation space per person:

Dining room, committee room 1.0 m2 Offices 6.0 m2 Standing areas in bars 0.3 m2 Art gallery, dormitory, factory production area, museum or workplace 5.0 m2

Requirement for Escape Stairs

 Number: – In general there will be more than one escape stairway – Various considerations will affect the actual number

needed

 Width of escape stairs: – Not less than width of any exits giving access to the stairs – Have a minimum width of 1 metre – Not be too wide so that people spread out during

evacuation

– Be fitted with a handrail where necessary (dependant on

width)

– Not reduce in width at any point on the way to the final exit  Be suitably protected against fire penetration

83

Doors

 Prevent the spread of fire and smoke  Ensure means of escape for people using the building  Should be easily and immediately operable - must not be

locked or fastened that they cannot be easily opened by any person who may require to use the exit

 Should lead to the assembly point  Be wide enough to accommodate the number of people

expected to use them

 Emergency doors must open in the direction of the escape  Sliding or revolving doors must not be used for exits

specifically intended as emergency exits

 Usually fitted with 3 hinges and positive self-closing

mechanism

Emergency Lighting

 Emergency lighting is provided to: – Indicate clearly the escape route – Provide illumination along such routes to allow

safe movement towards the means of escape

– Ensure fire alarm call points and fire fighting

equipment located along the route can be readily located

 Emergency routes and exits requiring illumination

must be provided with emergency lighting of adequate intensity

 Emergency lighting should be maintained and tested

Signage

 Health & Safety (Signs & Signals) Regs (SSSR) 96  White pictogram on green background (often has

supplementary text)

 Also mandatory signs – white text/pictogram on blue

background (can be reversed):

 Method of sound alarm  Method of calling the FRS  Method of evacuation  Location of assembly point  Specific instructions (Do Not Re-Enter)

84

Progressive Horizontal Evacuation

 Horizontal escape into the adjoining

compartments

 Object to provide a place of ‘reasonable safety’  Further evacuation made if necessary under

less pressure of time

 Integrity of building and fire resistance of

compartments needs to be assured for this method

 Used in hospitals, care homes and other similar

premises

Maintenance of Means of Escape

 Management need to ensure means of escape are

maintained in an efficient state, good working order and good repair (Article 17)

 Responsible person must ensure routes and exits

are kept clear at all times (Article 14)

 To achieve this implement:

• A of good system of safety checks and

inspections

• A thorough system of planned maintenance and

testing of all aspects of fire safety system

85

Means of Escape for the Disabled

 Due to Equality Act and requirement to give

disabled access to buildings, disabled people may be found in all areas

 Fire management system should ensure all

persons can escape in the event of a fire

 Responsible person should ensure everyone can

escape without the assistance of the FRS

 Not straightforward - many forms of disability:

• Hearing impairment
• Vision impairment
• Mobility impairment

Systems of Escape for the Disabled

 Horizontal evacuation – covered earlier  Evacuation by lift (often used in conjunction with refuges):

• Specially designed for evacuation of disabled
• Set within a fire resisting enclosure & separate power

source

 Evacuation by stairs:

• Most common system is use of ‘Evac+chair’
• Used by trained people
• Designed to be used to evacuate down stairs can be

adapted for evacuating up stairs

 Use of refuges:

• Relatively safe for short periods of time
• Procedures should still provide further evacuation

If you cannot get someone out you may need a Refuge

86

Other Way Finding & Exit Sign Systems

 May be necessary to install additional measures to assist in

the evacuation of people with disabilities

 Such way-finding and exit systems might include:

• Graphic
• Aural
• Tactile

 Personal Emergency Evacuation Plan (PEEP):

• Used where needs of an individual at work are identified

and written arrangements put into place to ensure their safe evacuation

• Where it is probable that people (e.g. visitors) who will

need assistance may be present a similar generic systems can be devised and implemented (GEEP)

Successful Practical Relevant

Methods and Systems Available to Give Early Warning in Case of Fire, both for Life Safety and Property Protection Element 4.3 Fire Detection and Alarm Systems

 Opportunity to detect fires at the four stages of a fire?

• Invisible products of combustion (e.g. CO detectors)
• Visible smoke
• Flame
• Heat (fixed temperature and rate of rise)

 Fire detection normally carried out by one of five ways)?

• Spot detectors (static detector covering a certain area)
• Line detector (linear heat detector cable)
• Beam detector (beam of light covering a large floor area)
• Sampling detector (pipework connected back to a

detector head)

• Scanning detector (moving detector sweeping a large

area)

87

Categories of Alarms & Detection Systems

To summon FRS in early stages of a fire:

• Type P1 – Automatic detection installed throughout the building
• Type P2 – Automatic detection installed in designated areas

Objective to protect people from loss of life or injury:

• Type M: Manual System (call points)
• Type L5: Life Safety where specific fire engineering solutions or

P1 insurance required

• Type L4: Life Safety system, as manual + escape route smoke

detection

• Type L3: Life Safety system, as manual + escape route smoke

detection and heat/smoke detection in adjacent rooms

• Type L2: Life Safety system; as L3 but detection in fire

hazard/risk areas

• Type L1: Life Safety, similar to P1 but the audibility is more

critical

Fire Alarm Zoning

 Convenient way of dividing up a building to assist locating the fire  Zone boundaries are not physical features of building  Rules apply to setting up zones:

• Floor area of single zone not to exceed 2,000 m2
• Two faults not to leave area of > 10,000 m2 unprotected

(addressable systems – give unique identification of activation device)

• If total building area =< 300 m2 it may be regarded as a single zone
• Total building area > 300 m2 - all zones restricted to a single floor

level

• Exception to above: stairwells, lift shafts or other vertical shafts

(non-risers) within a single fire compartment should be considered as one or more separate zones

• The maximum distance travelled in a zone to locate the fire should

not exceed 60 metres

Alarm Signalling

 Used to warn occupants of a fire situation  Normally achieved by audible warning devices  Must be audible over background noise of area  If necessary visual warnings may be used –

• peration and location of these will be critical

 Individual vibrating devices may also be used

for the impaired

 Voice sounders followed by a pre-recorded or

voice message may also be utilised

88

Single & Two Stage Alarms Single stage alarm:

 Alarm sounds throughout the whole building  Calls for total evacuation

Two-stage alarm:

 Used in certain large/high rise buildings  Used to evacuate the high risk areas first – those closet to

• r immediately above the fire

 If this is the case, alarm signal to evacuate is given in the

high risk area first, with an alert signal to other areas

 Once the high risk area has been evacuation, if necessary,

the alarm signal would sound in the previously alerted areas given them the signal to evacuate

Use of Alarm Receiving Centres

 Permanently manned centres usually

provided by a commercial organisation.

 The centre operators, upon receipt of a

fire signal, notify the appropriate FRS

 The FRS, to help manage false alarms,

may require company to register to ensure they comply with certain standards

 This system currently in use at all MOD

sites

Manual and Automatic Systems

Manual:

 Simplest system e.g. a hand bell, whistle, air horn  Limitations:

• Size of building in which it can be heard
• Are portable and prone to loss or theft

 Stand alone call points that operate a local alarm now

available Automatic: Covered in earlier slides Call points:

 Can be used to activate both manual and automatic systems  Workers need to be trained how to use them  Sited so that they are visible with appropriate signage  Max distance to reach call point 30m direct, 45m actual

89

Selection of Detection and Alarm Systems

 Decision between life risk protection or property risk

protection

 Life risk protection

• Type L system
• Outcome from fire risk assessment should decide the standard

and type of alarm required

• Type L1 to L3 are those that are often applied

 Property risk protection

• Type P system
• If risk specific to one or two areas Type P2 would suffice
• Care to be taken if installing this type to ensure that property

risk does not also present a life safety risk

Behavioural issues:

 People not responding to evacuation alarm signals  Evacuation delay or not evacuating in an orderly manners  Frequent false alarms diminishing creditability of system

Practicing and using fire marshals may be used to tackle issues

Social behaviour (e.g. night clubs, shops, theatres etc):

 Linked to behavioural issues  Peer pressure and sheep syndrome

False alarms:

 Can cause substantial disruption and burden FRS  Regular false alarms result in people disregarding alerts  Could be because of: equipment faults, malicious actions and

alarms with good intent

Other Considerations Requirements for Disabled Persons

 Standard mounting of call points is 1.4m from floor

• May need to be lowered to accommodate

wheelchair users

 Max distance to reach call point same as before,

30m direct, 45m actual

• May need to be reduced this if first person to

raise the alarm may have a disability that would prevent them getting to the call points easily

 Other issues already covered in means of escape

and alarm systems

90

Successful Practical Relevant

Selection Procedures for Basic Fire Extinguishing Methods for Both Life Risk and Process Risk Element 4.4 Types of Fire Extinguisher

 Water  Carbon Dioxide  Foam  Dry Powder  Wet Chemical Types of Fire Extinguisher and How are they identified?

 There are 5 basic types of fire

extinguisher

 The present scheme being used in the

UK are:

– Water - red – Carbon Dioxide - red with black – Dry Powder - red with blue – Foam - red with cream – Wet chemical - red with yellow

91

Water Extinguishers

Red body Suitable for use on Class A Fires, wood and paper etc. Not suitable for combustible liquids, cooking fats etc. Not safe to use on fires involving electricity Extinguishes by cooling Red Body with Cream label. Suitable for Class A and B Fires. Not suitable for use on fires involving electricity. Extinguishes by cooling and sealing the surface of a burning liquid.

Foam Extinguishers

Red body with blue label. Best on Class B fires but safe to use on any type of fire. Works by chemically interfering with the combustion reaction.

Dry Powder Extinguishers

92

Red body with black label. Best on Class B and C fires but safe to use on any type of fire. Safe to use on fires involving electricity. Extinguishes by reducing oxygen levels and cooling.

Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Extinguishers

Red body with yellow label. Best on Class F and A fires. Contains a solution of water and potassium salts which attacks the flame in two ways:

 The mist cools the fire and lowers the

temperature to stop the fire spreading, also prevents splashing of the hot oils/fat.

 The potassium salts react with the hot oil

causing saponification; coating the surface

• f the cooking oil or fat in soapy foam that

is non combustible and acts as a barrier between the fat/oil and the air (oxygen).

Wet Chemical Extinguishers

93

How do they work?

 Hose reels  Automatic sprinklers  Water spray systems  Gas flooding systems  Drenchers  Fire blankets

Other Fire Fighting Equipment Siting of Fire Fighting Appliances

 Portable fire fighting appliances should always be sited:

• On the line of the escape route
• Near, but not too near, danger points
• Near to room exits inside or outside according to
• ccupancy/risk
• In multi-storey buildings, at same position on each floor
• Where possible in groups forming fire points
• Where possible in shallow recesses, if not, sited on a wall
• So that no person need travel more than 30 metres to reach a

fire extinguisher

• With the carrying handle about one meter from the floor to

facilitate ease of handling and removal from wall bracket, or on purpose built floor stands

• Away from excesses of heat or cold

94

Fire Rating of Extinguishers

 Fire rating is a way of showing the limits of a fire extinguisher  This is only done for Class A and Class B fires  Minimum number of Class A (BS 5306 Pt 8) requirements:

• Minimum 2 per floor
• Total of ratings should be no less than 0.065 x floor area of

storey m2, but with minimum rating of 26A

• Single storey with upper floor area not exceeding 100m2 a

minimum rating of 13A should be sufficient

 Class B more complicated. Workplace needs to be assessed:

• Each room or enclosure to be considered separately
• Fire risks more than 20m apart considered separately
• Fire risks less than 20m apart can be considered undivided
• r a divided group

Example Fire Ratings of Stored Pressure Fire Extinguishers

Model Fire Rating 1 kg ABC Powder 8A : 55B 2 kg ABC Powder 13A : 89B 4 kg ABC Powder 27A : 144B 6 kg ABC Powder 34A : 183B 9 kg ABC Powder 43A : 233B 2 Litre Foam 5A : 34B 6 Litre Foam 13A : 144B 9 Litre Foam 21A : 183B 9 Litre Water 13A 2 Kg CO2 34B 5 Kg CO2 55B

Maintenance of Fire Fighting Appliances Given in BS 5306 Pt 3:

 Monthly inspections:

• Located in proper place
• If discharged
• Correct pressure
• Any obvious damage

 Annual inspection and maintenance:

• Thorough inspection of extinguisher
• Carried out by a competent person
• Spare gas cartridges and replacement charges
• May include internal inspection of extinguisher

95

Test by Discharge – How Often?

Extinguisher type

Interval of discharge

Water (stored pressure) Every 5 yrs Water (gas cartridge) Every 5 yrs Foam (all types) Every 5 yrs Powder (gas cartridge) Every 5 yrs Powder (stored pressure valve operated) Every 5 yrs Carbon Dioxide (all types) Every 10 yrs

Training in Use of Fire Fighting Appliances

 RRFSO 2005 does not specify training for fire extinguishers  It does require suitable and sufficient instruction and training

• n the appropriate precautions and actions to be taken

 Also requires training to be carried out periodically where

appropriate

 If an employee is expected to make use of an extinguisher,

this Article confirms that initial training must take place

 Any person called upon to make use of a fire extinguisher

should also be trained in the selection and practical use of the equipment.

 PUWER (fire extinguishers are an item of work equipment)

also requires that users of work equipment are trained in the use of that equipment

Successful Practical Relevant

Requirements for Ensuring Access for the Fire Service is Provided and Maintained

Element 4.5

96

Access and Facilities for the Fire Service – B5

 Requirement:

– The building shall be designed and

constructed so as to provide reasonable facilities to assist firefighters in the protection

• f life.

– Reasonable provision shall be made within

the site of the building to enable fire fighters to gain access to the building

Access & Facilities for the Fire Service

 RRFSO Art 38 - in order to safeguard the safety of fire-

fighters in the event of a fire, the premises and any facilities have to be are maintained in efficient state, working order and good repair

 Good sense to provide these regardless of regulations  The factors that need to be considered to assist the FRS in

their task include:

• Vehicle access for fire appliance
• Access for fire-fighting personnel
• Provision of fire mains (water) in tall buildings
• Venting of heat and smoke for basement fires
• Fire behaviour where insulating core panels used

Vehicle/Fire Fighting Access – Slide 1 Vehicle Access:

 FRS need to get vehicles as close as

possible to buildings to prevent the waste of time running out unnecessary hoses

 Building regulations lay down minimum

access requirements for pumping and high reach appliances

97

Vehicle/Fire Fighting Access – Slide 2 Fire Fighting Access:

 Low rise buildings, often no additional

requirements needed

 In other buildings additional facilities may be

required (fire fighting lifts, stairs and lobbies – normally called fire-fighting shafts)

 Buildings with floor levels over 18m, or

basements more than 10m below, provision to be made for FRS vehicle access and for fire-fighting shafts within the building

Vehicle/Fire Fighting Access – Slide 3 Fire Mains (water):

 Vertical pipe installed with an access point at

ground level for FRS

 Access points also on all floor levels to save a

large amount of time/effort running out hoses

 Buildings having a fire-fighting shaft will also

have a fire mains fitted into that shaft

 Buildings over 60m high will need a wet riser  Must be maintained/tested to ensure safe

• peration when required for use

Smoke and Heat Venting of Basements

Basements:

 Notoriously difficult to tackle fires in basements  Should have smoke outlets vented to open air so

heat and smoke can be released

 This would then make access for fire-fighters

easier

 May not be necessary for buildings with small

basements

 Fire-fighting shafts also have to be vented

• Often similar to those used to vent basements

98

Successful Practical Relevant

Environmental Impact of Fire

Environmental Impact of Fire

 Not only will the fire damage the

premises, but could also affect:

– The neighboring properties – The local community – The environment

Containment of Water Run Off ~ 1

 Sacrificial Areas – Water run off pumped to

remote sacrificial area

 Bunded vehicle

parking/other hard standing

– Impermeable areas

bunded to make temporary lagoons

99

Containment of Water Run Off ~ 2

 Pits and Trenches – Subject to potential groundwater

contamination, could be used to temporarily hold water run off.

 Portable Tanks, Overdrums and

Tankers

– Portable storage facilities, able to

be moved and set up rapidly to store water run off or other spillages

Sources of Pollution in a Fire ~ 1

 Pollutants may escape from site into the water

ecosystem by a number of pathways:

– Surface water drainage system – Direct run off into nearby watercourses or onto

ground with potential risk to ground waters

– Via foul drainage system where they could

pass unaltered through the sewage system

– Through atmospheric deposition, e.g. vapour

plumes

Sources of Pollution in a Fire ~ 2

 Fires can give off large quantities of toxic smoke

and fumes which contain pollutants such as asbestos

 Prevailing winds will carry these over long

distances and fall to the ground in rain water

100

Toxic and Corrosive Smoke

 Smoke consists of small particles or partially

burnt carbonaceous materials

 The size and quantity of particles will

determine the thickness of the smoke which can be further thickened by water vapour

 Smoke and its by products are normally very

corrosive and can cause long term damage to buildings and other materials if not cleaned correctly

Liaison with External Agencies

 In order for emergency plans operate smoothly and

efficiently, it is important that responsibilities are set down and understood both internally and externally.

 External agencies that could include those that may

be involved in the development of plans as well as its implementation.

 The FRS and EA will work

together in the event of a fire to minimise the environmental impact.

Successful Practical Relevant

Relevant Statutory Provisions and Guidance

101

Relevant Statutory Provisions

 The Regulatory Reform (Fire Safety) Order 2005  The Building Regulations 2000 Fire Safety - Approved

Document B 2000 Edition

 The Building Regulations 2000 Access to and Use of

Buildings - Approved Document M 2004 Edition

– Does not cover means of escape in event of a fire  Building (Scotland) Regulations 2006  Health and Safety (Safety Signs and Signals)

Regulations 1996

 BS 5839, Part 1 and Part 6

Successful Practical Relevant

NEBOSH Fire Certificate Safety of People in the Event of Fire

Element 5 Overall Aims For the candidates to be able to:

 Explain the purpose and typical content of a fire

emergency plan;

 Describe the development and maintenance of a

fire evacuation procedure;

 Outline the perception and behaviour of people in

the event of a fire;

 Outline appropriate training requirements.

102

Successful Practical Relevant

Fire Emergency Plans

Element 5.1

Fire and Emergency Plans

 Purpose:

– To ensure people on the premises know what to do in the

event of fire; and

– Ensure appropriate action is taken in the event of fire to

enable the premises to be evacuated safely.

What Should an Emergency Plan Cover

 How people will be warned;  Action people should take on discovering a fire;  Action people should take in the event of a fire;  Arrangements for calling the Fire and Rescue Service (FRS);  Isolations;  Fire alarm activities;  Evacuation procedure;  Assembly points;  Fire fighting arrangements;  Procedures for meeting the FRS on arrival (including access

arrangements and provision of information on incident etc.

103

Multi-Occupied Premises

 What additional arrangements would need to be covered in

the Emergency Plan where a building has multiple

• ccupancy?

– Individual occupants will be responsible for the

arrangements within their own areas;

– The controller of the premises will be responsible for the

arrangements in those common parts of the building;

– The controller of the premises will therefore need to:  Compile a list of all occupants;  Consult with all occupants and ensure that they have

made their own fire plan arrangements and that they fit in with the overall building arrangements;

Successful Practical Relevant

The Development and Maintenance of a Fire Evacuation Procedure

Element 5.2 Evacuation Procedures - Introduction

 Evacuation should not just cover employees, but all

foreseeable visitors as well

 The Equality Act requires employers to make reasonable

adjustments to allow access for people with disability, therefore, evacuation procedures must also consider this group

 Audible/visual alarms must be assessed for appropriateness

for those with disabilities

 Use of refuges although an option is not satisfactory.

Primary responsibility for evacuation is with the person in charge not the Fire and Rescue Services

 Procedures must cover all dangers that threaten persons in

the event of a fire

104

Evacuation Procedure – Slide 1

 Need pre-arranged plan  All workers and visitors to be familiar with plan  Visitors, employees and contractors must be given

instructions on the plan

 Routes to be taken and alternatives to be covered  Premises open to public impractical to train  Procedures must ensure public are evacuated  Fire Marshal floor sweep often used  Evacuation procedures may several options: – Single stage (total) – Horizontal – Staff Alarm (controlled) – Two stage – Phased

Evacuation Procedures – Slide 2

 Allocation of responsibility: – Designated persons for department/floor etc. – Numbers need to take into account shifts, holidays etc – Ensure safety of occupants  Fire Instruction Notices: – Conspicuous positions – Action to be taken in the event of discovery of a fire  Fire Action: – Sound the alarm (to warn others) – Call the Fire and Rescue Services – Tackle the fire (only if trained and safe to do so) – Checks of areas by responsible person – Get out of the building and stay out – Roll call

Ensuring Everyone is Evacuated

 There are two basic methods of achieving

this?

– The Roll Call System – The Fire Marshal System

 Each of these methods has advantages

and disadvantages

105

The Roll Call System

 Advantages:

– Specific confirmation that staff are out and safe – The emphasis lies in getting people out quickly and then

checking everyone is present

 Disadvantages:

– It is dependent on an up to date list of occupants – It is reactive to evacuation, does not help get people out – A lot of time checking lists before area can be declared

as clear

– Assumes people know where to go in the event of an

evacuation

– Nominated people and their substitutes must be

available to conduct the role call at the time they are needed

The Fire Marshal System

 Advantages: – Proven to be quickest, most efficient way to evacuate a

building

– Allows FRS to quickly rescue people and reduce damage – Buildings split into pre-defined areas for control (no ‘grey’

areas)

– Pro-active, action taken on activation not after evacuation – Uses people to evacuate people – allows for adverse

human behaviour

– It allows for a controlled search of the building  Disadvantages: – May only be in operation during the core working hours – The role of fire marshal is normally voluntary, it relies on

the goodwill of staff and their participation

The Fire Marshal System

 All areas of the building must be covered  Must ensure sufficient numbers  Actual system used will depend on: – Building layout – The work practices – Number of staff available to conduct evacuation  In practice there are three basic options: – Fixed system – Assembly system – Points system  It has to be remembered, fire marshals will be last people

• ut, should have visible identification

106

Fire Marshal – Fixed System

 Used where people are generally in fixed locations

at work and do not move around the building

 A person in the area can be given fire marshal

responsibilities to search the area when fire alarm sounds

 Providing there are sufficient fire marshals at work,

all areas can be covered and this is the simplest type of ‘floor sweep’ method

Fire Marshal – Assembly System

 Used where it cannot be guaranteed that a fire

marshal will be in a fixed location at work

 On activation, fire marshals go to a predetermined

point, or points, in the building

 From this point they are dispatched to all areas to

be checked

 Slower than fixed system  Advantage is that it will work even if the number of

available fire marshals varies

Fire Marshal – Points System

 In this system the number of marshals can vary and they can be

anywhere in the building

 Specific sites in the workplace are allocated as ‘Fire Marshal

Points’ which will have a number of route cards at them

 On activation, fire marshals go to nearest ‘Fire Marshal Point’ and

take an available route card and then checks the denoted area

 Speed of operation dependant on the number of available fire

marshals

 Some areas may have more fire marshals available than others

given that they are moving around

 May need to redirect fire marshals to other areas to assist with

checks, but only if safe to do so

 Nominated person needs to control evacuation from safe point and

would need some form of communications systems

107

Fire Drills

 To ensure all employees are familiar with and understand

procedures in the event of fire, repeated practice is desirable

 After initial practices to establish a working procedure, they

should be repeated at regular intervals – at least once a year

 Where there is a danger of rapid spread of fire, more

frequent drills would be necessary

 Instructions to employees can be used to supplement for

practice drills when interruption to normal work not routinely practicable

 If instruction used, employees should use alternative routes

to at the end of the day (may have security implications)

People with Sensory Impairments

 Who may need to be considered and what are the possible

control measures?

– Hearing impaired:  Visual flashing lights  Personal trembler alarms  Buddy system – Vision impaired:  Use of tactile way-finding and exit signs  Buddy system – Hearing and vision impairments:  A combination of both approaches will be necessary

Procedures to Evacuate Disabled People

 Mobility impairment: – Person in a wheelchair or someone just slower than others – Assistance after initial rush – Vertical movement of wheelchairs will need to be considered:  Use of Evac Chairs  Use of Safe Refuges with an appointed person with them

to maintain communication with coordinator of fire panel

 Safe refuges: – An area where those who need assistance to go – Would be well protected against fire by stairwell or lift – Should only be treated as temporary refuge whilst decision

made if evacuation necessary

108

Procedures to Evacuate the Public

 Greater problems than for employees  Variety of issues influence this: – Disbelief – Lack of awareness of dangers – Unwilling to stop what they are doing – Unwilling to break their pattern (or ‘script’) – Lack of knowledge of evacuation routes and procedures  Personal Emergency Evacuation Plans (PEEP) not feasible

for public (only suitable for employees or specific visitors)

 Set of generic emergency evacuation plans (GEEP) for

public to cover possible issues

 Use of fire competent fire marshals essential

Successful Practical Relevant

Perception and Behaviour of People in the Event of Fire

Element 5.3

Perception verses Reality

 Perception varies with individuals  People can interpret sensory data in a number of ways  Problems associated with individual perception include: – There is a tendency to perceive things as complete, filling

in the gaps in order to get an overall impression

– There is a tendency to perceive objects as constant in

size, shape, colour and other qualities

– Sometimes an object that is constant is perceived as

variable, e.g. one moment there appears to be a single

• bject, the next there appears to be more than one.

109

Fire and Emergency Experiences

 It is quite unusual for a person to have experience of a real

fire or emergency situation warranting an immediate evacuation of a building.

 The normal experience is that of a ‘false alarm’ or ‘practice’.  In general, people do not perceive a serious personal threat

when they hear a fire alarm in a building.

 Most people do not perceive the possibility of a small fire

rapidly growing into one of a significant magnitude to pose a serious threat (e.g. Bradford fire took only 6 minutes).

 If the true nature of the threat is not perceived they are likely

to delay evacuation and thereby increase the risk.

Human Behaviour in Fire

May be varied and complex  Fear  Neurotic fear (panic)  Self preservation  Disbelief  Anxiety  Complacency  Personal relationships &

protection of family

 Effects of smoke on

behaviour (most people will only travel 6 metres in smoke)

 Perception of risk  Peer pressure (sheep

syndrome)

 Level of training  Familiarity

Time Required for Escape

 Evacuation can be seen as having 4 distinct phases:

• 1. Alert time from the fire initiation to

detection/recognition;

• 2. Pre-movement time taken by behaviour that diverts an

individual from the escape route(s);

• 3. Travel time to physically get to an exit;
• 4. Flow time, i.e. how long it takes for the occupants to

move through the various stages of the escape route (doorways are invariably the least efficient element with the longest flow time) and restriction on the route.

110

Warning Systems

 What are the methods of warning members of the

public of an emergency?

– Bells & sirens – Verbal messages – Combination of bells/sirens and verbal

messages

– Strobe lights – Information boards  What are the negative aspects of each of these

methods? Negative Aspects of Warning Systems

 Bells/sirens – People need to recognise sound and react appropriately – To work efficiently will need reinforcing by fire marshals  Verbal message – People treat as normal announcement, not as an emergency – Not listening and/or not heeding properly  Siren and verbal – Combination system appears to be very successful – Limitation; in a multicultural society - a potential language barrier  Strobe lights – Poor or insufficient siting and insufficient intensity – People concentrating on what they are doing may not see them

activated

 Information boards – Language or literacy problems – More comprehensive and people can make better choices

Decision Making Process

 Time limit on evacuation may produce stress on individuals  May need to consider how stress affects different people  Range of vision due to smoke and fumes may be reduced  Reliance of visual symbols will be insufficient in such conditions  Crucial information is precise and easy to comprehend  Information should tell people ‘what to do’ not what they should do  Need to ensure orders about actions to be taken and what not to do

are understood (includes signposting)

 Order of instructions should be chronological  Symbols and pictographs are generally easier to understand  Combinations of picture, text and speech work best  If speech used, words used regularly are easier to understand

111

Spatial Orientation

 Tunnel vision effect on people’s eyesight range, people exiting

large public buildings will tend to be fixed on a chosen exit path

 They will not tend to look around for other exit routes and

potentially miss closer and maybe shorter alternative exit routes

 To design a building for fire safety the way people behave is an

important consideration

 Entrances and exits of a department store may be oversubscribed

compared to the number and sizes of exits theoretically needed

 Need to know ways of countering the behavioural trait of people

wanting to leave the building the way they entered

 Need to steer people by means of signage/wayfinding systems: – Permanently lit exit signs and routes in cinemas, imprinted in

memory because of the dark conditions

Patterns of Exit Choice

 People generally do not walk round looking at emergency exits  When they need to leave they will tend to reverse their steps

passing by potential other exits

 People familiar with their surrounds will use exit routes they know  Fire drills make people more familiar with alternative routes  Practice evacuations should occasionally simulate blocked exits  Visitors will need to have routes and alternatives reinforced during

their induction process

 An alternative for visitors is to ensure they are hosted at all times  Cannot assume people will split evenly to all possible exits  Design of entrances and exits need to take account of flow of

people in an emergency

Parents and Elder Siblings

 Parents or elder siblings, generally will not evacuate willingly if they

believe their children or younger siblings are still inside

 This trait of human nature needs to be built in to the fire warning

system and management actions taken to control such situations

 An example of management controls could be: – If a building has a crèche, parents informed that in the event of a fire

alarm children will be evacuated to a nominated assembly point.

Nurses:

 Their actions towards their patients may be the same as for

parents

 Getting them not to enter a room on fire could put enormous

emotional and psychological effects on them Teachers:

 Issues again are similar to parents and nurses.

112

Crowd Movement – Slide 1

 Deaths in large scale fires are more likely to

have occurred due to delays in receiving information about a fire than due to panic

 Individuals start to move as soon as they

hear an alarm, but alarms cannot always be relied upon to prompt them to move

 Time to evacuate is not just the time to move

to and through an exit, it includes a degree of reaction time

 Often initial movement is characterised by a

desire to investigate rather than escape

Crowd Movement – Slide 2

 As already mentioned, people tend to move in a

familiar direction rather than an unfamiliar closer fire exits as long as the route is unobstructed

 Unless in a dense crowd, people tend to move

independently or in their family or party group

 If visibility is 2m or more people will still attempt

to use that route

Crowd Flow

 If a crowd of people are moving in one

direction it will be almost impossible to go against the flow

 People will be carried along with the

flow

 If someone falls, they will be trampled  If the people come up against a barrier

they may be crushed

113

Crowd Flow Examples

 Bradford City Football Club where

people reported being swept along the rear passageway at the rear of the stand

 Liverpool FC and Nottingham Forrest

in an FA Cup semi-final when fans arrived late resulted in people being crushed against crash barriers and 96 people died

Modification of Crowd Flow

 Care needed in the design of buildings to prevent injury due to

crowd movement in the event of a fire

 Provision of directions, signage etc to encourage people to

use as many exits as possible is essential

 Each of the possible routes needs to be considered so that the

flow of people can be aided

 Staircases are a typical point of bottleneck: – People will tend to use the sides where there are hand rails – The centre portion will be empty and under utilised – Dividing the staircase by putting a centre handrail would

encourage the use of the full width during evacuation

Measures Needed to Overcome Behavioural Problems

 What steps will play a key role in overcoming

behavioural problems with securing the safe evacuation in the event of a fire?

– The emergency plan; – Detection; – Warning signals; – Layout of escape routes; – Emergency instructions; – Rehearsal; – Competent staff.

114

The Emergency Plan

 If there is a well thought out and comprehensive plan that is

clearly communicated people will tend to trust it and be willing to play their part. It should include:

– The actions that individuals are expected to take in an

emergency; and

– Arrangements for business continuity  The plan will be based on the findings of the fire risk

assessment (covered in Element 6).

 In smaller premises, the plan may take the form of simple

instructions to staff on the actions they are to take.

 In larger more complex premises (e.g. shared occupancy)

more detailed and comprehensive plans will be necessary.

Detection

 To maximise the time people have to escape, it is

important to ensure that arrangements are in place to detect a fire as soon as it breaks out.

 All fires give off heat, light and smoke, each of

which can be detected by a variety of means ranging from human to automatic detection.

 Zoned automatic detection results in quicker

identification of the location of the fire and will aid evacuation response.

 In multi-storey buildings zoning will be undertaken

in floors allowing for sequential evacuation.

Warning Signals

 Successful evacuation is reliant on the perception

• f people to comprehend the situation and

possible impact.

 There should be simple system in place to enable

the activation of the emergency procedure to those potentially at risk.

 Such systems could include: – Audible alarm systems – Visual alarm systems – Portable alarm devices (e.g. air horns)

115

Layout of Escape Routes

 Escape routes should be sufficient in number and

• f adequate size

 The length of the escape route should be as short

as possible to take people to a place of total safety.

 People should be able to easily and quickly identify

the direction of travel in order to ensure that they do not hesitate to use the means of escape.

 To achieve this there will need to be adequate

signage, lighting and clear information relating to the operation of any security devices; or

 Escape routes should be intuitive!

Emergency Instructions

 Emergency instructions should be clear, consistent,

simple and understandable.

 They should be given on various occasions (e.g.

when staff join an organisation, are relocated, when visitors or contractors arrive, when members

• f public enter a building etc.).

 Emergency instructions should relate to such

issues as: the action to be taken when a fire is detected, the action to be taken when hearing the alarm etc.

Rehearsals

 It is always necessary to rehearse emergency

procedures i.e. carrying out fire drills.

 Fire drills should: – Test the system to ensure they operate as

expected;

– Increase familiarisation of the procedure with the

• ccupants of the building;

– Allow those who hold key roles e.g. fire wardens

and fire incident controllers, to practice their roles;

– Demonstrate to staff and enforcement bodies that

reasonable arrangements have been made to ensure effective evacuation in the event of a fire.

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Successful Practical Relevant

Appropriate Training Requirements

Element 5.4

Who Will Need to be Trained?

 Employees;  Temporary workers;  Agency staff;  Volunteers;  Visitors etc.  Competent persons (e.g. fire marshals/wardens);  Employees with management/supervisory roles.

What should training cover?

 Employees, temporary workers, agency staff, volunteers,

visitors etc:

– Actions to be taken in the event of a fire, fire escape routes,

assembly points, use of fire extinguishers, not to return until given permission to do so etc.

 Competent persons (e.g. fire marshals/wardens);

– Comprehensive information on roles and responsibilities, the

maintenance and checks to be carried out on fire systems and equipment etc.

– Only consider to be competent when they have received this

training and have the knowledge and experience and available equipment to fulfil their function.

 Employees with management/supervisory roles.

– Fire safety plan, fire alarm control panel, information on special

evacuation arrangements for persons with disabilities.

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Successful Practical Relevant

NEBOSH Fire Certificate Fire Safety Risk Assessment

Element 6 Overall Aims For the candidates to be able to:

 Explain the aims and objectives of fire safety risk

assessments;

 Outline the principles and practice of fire safety risk

assessments including principles of prevention (measures to remove and reduce risk;

 Outline matters to be considered in a risk

assessment of dangerous substances and measure to be taken to control risk;

 Outline steps to minimise the environmental impact

• f fire and fire fighting operations.

Successful Practical Relevant

Aims and Objectives of Fire Safety Risk Assessments

Element 6.1

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Definitions - 1

 Primary Fire Hazard:

– Something that has the potential to cause harm, by

initiating or exacerbating a fire (ignition, fuel or oxygen).

 Secondary Fire Hazard:

– Something that has the potential to cause harm by

preventing an adequate response in the event of a fire (inadequate size of escape route, lack of signage, lack of effective emergency plan).

 Fire Risk:

– A combination of the likelihood (chance or probability) of a

fire occurring and should it do so, the severity (or consequences) of the outcome.

Definitions - 2

 Fire Risk Assessment:

– The process of identifying fire hazards and evaluating the

level of risk (including who and how may are affected) arising from the hazards, taking into account any existing risk control measures.

 Fire Risk Controls:

– Workplace precautions, for example sprinkler systems

within a building, fire alarm and detection systems, fire emergency plans (procedures), work permit systems and portable fire fighting equipment.

Definitions - 3

 Risk Control Systems:

– Arrangements that ensure that fire risk controls

(workplace precautions) are implement and maintained.

– Examples include:  The provision for ensuring that an adequate level of

supervision is maintained during hot work or refuelling process;

 A system for planned preventive maintenance for fire

safety systems (emergency lighting, fire doors etc.);

 Establishing a programme of fire safety inspections for

buildings, sites and workplaces.

119

Distinction Between Different Types of Incident

 Injury incident:

– Undesired and unplanned events which may cause

personal injury.

 Ill-Health:

– Illness arising from conditions at the workplace including

fire (e.g. breathing in smoke and toxic fumes)

 Dangerous occurrence:

– An incident that does not result in a reportable injury or

loss, but could have done (examples given in RIDDOR e.g. closure of a site for more than 24 hours due to a fire incident).

Distinction Between Different Types of Incident

 Near miss:

– Are accidents which do not result in injury

• r loss, but under different circumstances

could have done;

 Fire damage only:

– Incidents where there is no resulting injury

• r ill-health to people but where property,

materials or equipment may be affected. Objectives of Fire Risk Assessments

 Identify all factors that may cause harm to people, property

and/or the environment in the event of a fire or explosion (human and economic costs).

 To consider the likelihood or chance of that harm being

realised, and the possible consequences that could come from it.

 To enable the ‘Responsible Person’ to plan, implement and

monitor the preventive and protective measures to ensure that the risks are controlled as low as reasonably possible at all times (policies and procedures).

 To ensure legal compliance.

120

Legal Aspects of Risk Assessment

 HSWA 74 – Section 2 implies the need for risk assessment – Section 3 extends duty to anyone affected by employer’s

activities

 Management of H&S at Work Regulations 1999 – Reg 3 – Every employer shall make a suitable and sufficient

assessment of:

 The risks to the health and safety of his employees to which they

are exposed whilst they are at work; and

 The risks to the health and safety of persons not in his

employment arising out of or in connection with the conduct by him of his undertaking.

– Duty extends to self employed persons

Suitable and Sufficient?

 Identifies the risks from all work activity hazards  Be proportionate to the level of risk and the

nature of the work

 Remains valid for a reasonable period of time  Identifies and priorities the control measure

required to protect the H&S of the employees and

• thers who may be affected

 Undertaken by a competent person  Carried out in consultation with those involved in

the activity

Successful Practical Relevant

Principles and Practice of Fire Safety Risk Assessments

Element 6.2

121

5 Steps of a Fire Risk Assessment (FRA)

Step 1 – Identify fire hazards – Fire triangle Sources of ignition, sources of fuel, sources of oxygen Step 2 – Decide who could be harmed How many, enhanced level of risk due to work/location, escape routes etc. Step 3 – Evaluate the risks and decide whether existing precautions are adequate Preventing spread of fire, reducing ignition sources & fuels, limiting fire’s access to

• xygen, fire detection & alarm systems, means of escape, fire fighting measures,

maintenance & testing, fire procedures & training, disabled people, security etc. Step 4 – Recording findings, plan, instruct and train Step 5 – Review and revise

Indentifying Hazards

 Identifying fire hazards e.g.:

– sources and form of harm; – inspections of work areas, – job/task analysis, – legislation, – manufacturers' information – safety data sheets, – incident data

Evaluating Risk

 Evaluating risk and adequacy of current controls:

– likelihood of harm and probable severity; – qualitative and quantitative risk rating; – residual risk; – acceptable/tolerable risk levels; – use of guidance; – sources and examples of legislation applying controls to

specified hazards;

– general control hierarchy; – prioritisation based on risk; – distinction between priorities and time scales

122

Step 3 - Risk Rating

 Risk rating should include:

– Likelihood of the event occurring

 Frequency with which the operation is carried

• ut

 The population exposed to the risk

– Severity of the outcome

 Risk = Likelihood x Severity

Qualitative Risk Assessment (Numbers) Severity of the Outcome

1 = No harm or illness 2 = First Aid injury 3 = 7-Day reportable 4 = Major injury/ illness 5 = Fatality

Qualitative Risk Assessment (Numbers) Likelihood of the Event

1 = Very unlikely 2 = Possible 3 = 50/50 chance 4 = Very likely 5 = Almost certain

123

Risk Multiplication Table

5 5 10 15 20 25 4 4 8 12 16 20 3 3 6 9 12 15 2 2 4 6 8 10 1 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 Likelihood Severity

Qualative Risk Assessment (Words) Severity of the Outcome

Likelihood Low = no or slim chance Medium = might well occur High = will almost certainly occur Severity No/Slight = none or 1st aid injury Minor = 3 day reportable Major = major reportable

Qualative Risk Assessment (Words) Severity of the Outcome

Major Medium Risk High Risk High Risk Minor Low Risk Medium Risk High Risk No/slight Low Risk Low Risk Medium Risk Low Medium High S e v e r i t y

Likelihood

124

HSE Framework for Tolerability of Risk

Acceptable & Tolerable Risks - 1

 Societal standards change and risk acceptability levels

reduces each year in Europe

 The HSE suggest that the boundary between ‘unacceptable’

and ‘tolerable’ (e.g. high risk professions) regions might be at a risk of:

– 1 in 1,000 for workers; and – 1 in 10,000 for members of the public.  The boundary between ‘tolerable’ and ‘broadly acceptable’

regions might be a risk of 1 in 1,000,000 for both groups.

 Controls where risks are ‘tolerable’ still need to be improved

and are not considered to be acceptable in the longer term.

Source: Reducing Risk Protecting People, HSE Decision Making Process.

Acceptable & Tolerable Risks - 2

 Legislation places general duty to reduce the level

• f risk so far as is reasonably practicable

 The standard ‘practicable’ places a duty on the

responsible person to use any new improvements in technology

 Guidance issued by various bodies can assist in

the decision on the standards to achieve

 Where an organisation uses alternative practices

to the standards, it may be necessary to justify the practice

125

Risk Controls

 Avoid or reduce hazards that may cause a fire;  Risk to be reduced as far as reasonably

practicable;

 Put in place fire safety measures to reduce risk to

persons from fire e.g.

– Means of detecting fires; – Means of escape; – Means of fighting fires; – Arrangements for action to be taken in event of fire etc.

 Action plans to implement measures to control risks

Recording and Reviewing

 Recording significant findings:

– format; – information to be recorded.

 Reviewing the fire risk assessment:

– reasons for review (e.g. incidents); – changes to process, equipment, substances used; – change of staff (key positions); – legislative changes; – elapse of time.

Step 1 – Possible Sources of Ignition

• Faulty electrical equipment
• Sparks from abrasive work (angle grinders etc.)
• Hot processes (hot works)
• Naked flames (e.g. candles, gas fuelled equipment etc.)
• Cooking equipment
• Heaters
• Light fittings
• Hot surfaces
• Obstructions to equipment ventilation
• Central heating boilers
• Flares, fireworks, pyrotechnics
• Arson
• Smokers material

126

Step 1 – Possible Sources of Fuel

• Flammable liquids
• Flammable liquid based products such as paint, varnishes etc.
• Display stands
• Costumes, drapes and hangings, scenery, banners etc.
• Package foodstuffs
• Stationery, advertising material and decorations
• Litter and waste, particularly finely divided items such as

shredded paper

• Upholstery, soft furnishings, textiles etc.
• Plastic and rubber, such as video tapes, polyurethane foam filled

furniture and polystyrene-based display materials and rubber or foam exercise mats

• Fireworks and pyrotechnics
• Flammable fats in kitchens

Step 1 – Possible Sources of Oxygen

• Natural air flow through doors windows

and other openings

• Mechanical air handling systems
• Mechanical air conditioning systems
• Some chemicals (oxidising agents) can

provide a fire with additional oxygen to fuel the fire

• Oxygen supplies from a cylinder
• Pyrotechnics (fireworks) that contain
• xidising materials and require great care.

Step 2 – Possible Groups of People

• Yourself
• Other Company employees
• Employees who work alone and/or in isolated areas
• Unaccompanied children
• People who are unfamiliar with the premises e.g. members
• f the public
• People with disabilities
• People who may have some reason for not being able to

leave the premises quickly, e.g. people in a state of undress, elderly customers, pregnant women or parents with children

• Sensory impaired due to alcohol, drugs or medication
• Other people in the immediate vicinity of the premises who

are not actually using it

127

• Fire detection and warning
• Means of escape
• Means of fire fighting
• Maintenance and testing
• Procedures
• Training

Step 3 - Evaluate Step 3 – Evaluate Fire Detection and Warning Evaluate if:

• Fire is detected quickly enough for people to

escape

• Means of warning is recognised and understood
• Staff know how to operate system
• Staff know what to do if alarm operates
• Fire notices around workplace are

suitable/sufficient

Step 3 – Evaluate Means of Escape

Evaluate:

• How long it will take for people to escape once aware of

the fire and if the time is reasonable

• If there are enough exits and are they in the right place
• If there are suitable means of escape for all people

including the disabled

• What would be the effect of a fire on escape routes
• If escape routes easily identifiable
• If escape routes are free from obstruction and blockages
• If exit routes are suitably lit at all times
• If staff have been trained in use of escape routes

128

Step 3 – Evaluate Means

• f Fire Fighting

Evaluate if:

• The fire fighting equipment is suitable for the risk
• Fire fighting equipment is suitably located
• Fire fighting equipment is suitably signed
• If people have been trained in the use of equipment where

necessary

Step 3 Evaluate Maintenance and Testing

Evaluate if the following are being carried out:

• Regular checks of all fire doors, escape routes, lighting and

signs

• Regular checks of fire fighting equipment
• Regular checks of all fire detectors and alarms
• Regular checks of any other equipment provided to help

means of escape arrangements

• Relevant instructions are being given to staff re maintenance

and testing

• The competence of those carrying out maintenance is as

required by legislation

Step 3 - Evaluate Fire Procedures and Training Evaluate if:

• There is an emergency plan
• The emergency plan takes account of all reasonably

foreseeable circumstances

• All employees are familiar with the plan, trained in

its use and involved in testing

• The fire procedure notices are clearly indicated

throughout the workplace

• All people likely to be present have been considered

129

General Principles of Prevention

• Eliminate

The materials/substances or work practice

• Reduce

The use or frequency or substitute for lesser hazard or change the physical form

• Isolation

The hazard from workplace by use of fire resistant storage

• Control

At source, i.e. fume, dust extraction, total enclosure

• PPE

Anti-static clothing, conductive operator footwear

• Discipline

Follow rules, obey rules and instructions

Control Hierarchy

 General Principles of Prevention (Schedule 1): – Avoid risks – Evaluate risks which cannot be avoided – Combat the risks at source – Adapt the work to the individual – Adapting to technical progress – Replacing the dangerous by the non-dangerous or less

dangerous

– Developing a coherent overall prevention policy (H&S Policy) – Giving collective measures priority over individual protective

measures and;

– Giving appropriate instruction to employees

Prioritisation Based on Risk

 Improvement measures required as a result of the risk

assessment would need to be allocated a priority

 Measurement of the scale of risk normally rated as ‘high’,

‘medium’, ‘low’.

 Using the measurement the action plan timescales can

be based on these risk levels as not all risks will be categorised as high priority

 Significant risks are of high priority, however, some

remedies may take considerable time to implement

 If this is the case, immediate actions may be necessary

to reduce the risk until the final solutions are implemented

130

Step 3 - Fire Plans

 Fire plans should be produced and attached to the risk

assessment.

 A copy of the fire plan should be posted in the workplace.  A single line plan of the area or floor should show: – Escape routes, numbers of exits & stairs, fire-resisting

doors, walls and partitions, places of safety etc.

– Fire safety signs and notices including pictorial fire exit

signs and fire action notices.

– The location of fire warning call points and sounders or

rotary gongs.

– The location of emergency lights. – The location and type of fire-fighting equipment. – Where you are!

Step 3 - Fire Instruction Notices

 Instructions for raising the alarm  Instructions to report to the nearest assembly

point

 Information as to the whereabouts of the

assembly point

 An indication of the locations of fire escape

routes

 Positions of fire extinguishers  Instructions about using fire extinguishers

Temporary Buildings

 Temporary buildings should be separated from the

building under construction by at least 10m

 Where it is less than this the building should be

constructed of fire resisting material - walls, roofs, doors and windows to have 30 minute fire resistance

131

Construction of Temporary Buildings

 The following dimensions are acceptable for up to

100 persons

– Clear width of door

750mm

– Height of door

1.960m

– Width of corridor

1.100m

– Height of corridor

2.000m

– Width of stairs

1.100m

– Clear height vertically above stairs 2.000m

Fire Prevention

 Storage cabinet for up to 50 litres of COSHH:

 As soon as practicable after the assessment

is made or reviewed the person responsible must record the information:

– Where he employs 5 or more employees – Where a licence under another enactment

is in force Step 4 – Making a Record

132

 The information required: – The significant findings – Measures which have or will be taken – Any group of persons identified as being

particularly at risk

 No new work activity involving a dangerous

substance may commence unless a risk assessment has been made and the measures required implemented

Step 4 – Inform, Instruct and Train

Step 4 Provision of Information to Employees

 The responsible person must provide

comprehensible and relevant information on:

– The risks to them identified by the risk

assessment

– The preventive and protective measures – Any procedures  Before employing a young person provide the

parent with the above information

Step 4 - Training

 Responsible person must ensure training – When first employed – On their being exposed to new or increased risks – Introduction of new work equipment – Introduction of new technology – Introduction of new systems of work

133

Step 4 - Training (continued)

 The training must: – Include suitable and sufficient training on

appropriate precautions and actions

– Be repeated periodically where appropriate – Be adapted to take account of changed risks – Take place during working hours

Step 4 - Training Subjects

 General fire prevention  Action on discovering a fire  Method of raising the alarm  Action on hearing the alarm  Location & use of fire fighting equipment  Means of escape & evacuation procedure  Written instruction may be used

 Records of visits from Fire Officers  Records of maintenance and servicing of fire

equipment (alarms, appliances etc.)

 Record of staff training  Record of fire drills  Record of fire alarm tests  Record of emergency lighting checks  Record of fire fighting appliance checks  Record of briefings on fire precautions and safety

Fire Records

134

Step 5 - Reviewing Risk Assessment

 Assessments must be reviewed regularly by the

responsible person and particularly if

– Reason to suspect no longer valid – Significant change to the matters to which it

relates

 Responsible person must not employ young

persons unless he has made or reviewed the assessment in relation to the risks to young persons Training of Staff Carrying Out Risk Assessment

 Training should include:

– Legal requirements with respect to risk assessment – The process of identifying hazards and evaluating risks – The identification and selection of appropriate control

measures

– The awareness of individual’s and the occasions when

specialist assistance might be required

– Accessing sources of information such as ACoP’s and in-

house information including accident records

– Report writing skills – The interpretation of regulations and standards – The means available for disseminating the outcomes of

the assessment

Successful Practical Relevant

Matters to be Considered in a Risk Assessment of Dangerous Substances and Measure to be taken to Control Risk Element 6.3

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Risk Assessment (RRFSO Art. 9)

 The responsible person MUST make a suitable and

sufficient assessment of the risks …… for the purpose of identifying the precautions required

 Where a dangerous substance is kept/used or may

be liable to be kept/used, the assessment must include consideration of matters such as:

– The Materials Safety Data Sheets – Whether explosive atmospheres will exist or persist – Activities – Quantities – etc.

RRFSO Schedule 1 Part 4 Dangerous Substances – Measures to be Applied In order of priority:

 reduce the quantity of dangerous substances to a minimum;  avoid or minimise the release of a dangerous substance;  control the release of a dangerous substance at source;  prevent the formation of an explosive atmosphere, including

the application of appropriate ventilation;

 ensure that any release of a dangerous substance which may

give rise to risk is suitably collected, safely contained, removed to a safe place, or rendered safe, as appropriate;

 Avoid ignition sources including electrostatic discharges; and

such other adverse conditions as could result in harmful physical effects from a dangerous substance; and

 segregate incompatible dangerous substances.

RRFSO Schedule 1 Part 4 Dangerous Substances – Other Control Measures

 The responsible person must ensure that mitigation

measures applied in accordance with article 12(3)(b) include:

– reducing to a minimum the number of persons exposed; – measures to avoid the propagation of fires or explosions; – providing explosion pressure relief arrangements; – providing explosion suppression equipment; – providing plant which is constructed so as to withstand the

pressure likely to be produced by an explosion; and

– providing suitable personal protective equipment.

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Successful Practical Relevant

Relevant Statutory Provisions Relevant Statutory Provisions

 The Regulatory Reform (Fire Safety) Order

2005

 Fire (Scotland) Act 2005  Fire Safety (Scotland) Regulations 2006  The Water Resources Act 1991  The Environmental Protection Act 1990

Successful Practical Relevant

NEBOSH Fire Certificate Practicable Application FC2

137

 During the practical application delegates are

expected to recognise both controlled and uncontrolled fire hazards.

 While only brief details are required, it is important

that the assessor can subsequently identify:

– Where the hazard was located; – The nature of the hazard; – The degree of risk associated with the hazard; – Measures in place to prevent fire or reduce risk; – The remedial actions, where appropriate, with relevant

prioritisation.

The Assessment Educational Purposes Only



You and your employer are to be left in no doubt of the status of the fire practical application review and report undertaken to fulfil the requirements of Unit FC2 for educational purposes only.



It does not constitute an assessment or inspection for the purposes of any legislation or regulations.

Planning

 You are allowed to select your own setting for

the practical application.

 This should be an area that is accessible to

you in your day-to-day work.

 If required, your course tutor will give you

guidance to help your select an appropriate area.

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The Chosen Area

 The area must be accessible and area management must be

willing to co-operate.

 The area must be sufficiently simple/small to allow the

practical application to be completed within three hours.

– For large/complex sites, you should select a small area

within the site, e.g. a warehouse, a single production area

• r part of a larger construction site.

– On smaller sites, you could cover the whole site.  There may be constraints affecting the practical application

e.g. confidentiality, where such problems are identified, guidance should be sought from your tutor.

Practical Assessment Forms

 The forms for your practical application have

been produced in a candidate workbook and this can be filled in long-hand for submission for marking.

 If you wish to type your report the course

tutor will arrange for an electronic copy of this candidate workbook to be emailed to you. The Forms

 Fire Risk Assessment Summary/Notes Sheet - – Used to make notes of observations during the

workplace inspection and the actions to be taken to reduce fire risks;

 Form 1 – Fire Risk Assessment Sheet (fire

prevention);

 Form 2 – Fire Risk Assessment Sheet (risks of fire

spread and risk of fire to persons;

 Form 3 – Summary of Fire Risk Assessment Sheet

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Form 1

 Completed by transferring the information gathered

• n the Fire Risk Assessment notes sheets.

 Information entered on this sheet must be controlled

and uncontrolled risks relating to:

– Fire hazards; – The persons who may be at risk; and – Current of measures in place to reduce the risk of

fire occurring.

 Additional fire safety measures required to further

reduce the risk should also be recorded.

Form 2

 Completed by transferring the information gathered

• n the Fire Risk Assessment notes sheets.

 Information entered on this sheet must be controlled

and uncontrolled risks relating to:

– Risk of fire spread, fire protection measures,

warnings and emergency evacuation issues and persons at risk; and

– Current measures in place to reduce risk and

additional fire safety measures required to further reduce the risk should also be recorded.

Form 3

 Complete this sheet by drawing on the issues

addressed on the other risk assessment forms and assess:

– The risk of fire occurring; – The risk of fire spread; – The risk to persons from fire; and – Recommend a risk assessment review

date.

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