The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland: The - - PowerPoint PPT Presentation

The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland: The Origins of Parliamentary Government

Source: Palmer 2004

Government Meelis Kitsing

mkitsing@polsci.umass.edu http://faculty.uml.edu/mkitsing/46.112/

“There’ll always be an England, And England shall be free, If England means as much to you, As England means to me.”

Source: Palmer 2004

England means as much to you, As England means to me.”

(from the World War I song “There’ll Always be and England” by Parker & Charles)

Britain in Historical Perspective: England, Great Britain and the United Kingdom (UK)

• Four countries form the UK: England (population – 50

million, Scotland (five million), Wales (three million) and Northern Ireland (about two million). Integration resulted from English absorption of its smaller neighbors, but all four peoples retain separate national identities which have resurfaced especially with the UK’s entry into the European

Source: Palmer 2004

resurfaced especially with the UK’s entry into the European

• Union. This has resulted in increased autonomy through

their parliaments. The Northern Ireland problem remains thorny although a tenuous agreement between the UK government and the Northern Irish mediated by the US was signed in 1998. Violence has become sporadic. The complex issues involve religion, economics and nationalism. The Irish (Republic of Ireland), however, obtained independence from the UK after the 1921 civil war.

Source: Palmer 2004

Population: 60,441,457 (July 2005 est.) Life expectancy at birth: 78.38 years (total population) 75.94 years (men) 80.96 years (women) (2005 est.) Literacy: 99 percent of people age 15

Source: Palmer 2004

99 percent of people age 15 and over can read and write (2000 estimate) Capital: London Per capita income: $29,600 (2004 estimate)

The Evolution of British Democracy

• William the Conqueror, leader of the (Norman) French

armies unified England in 1066 and established the British aristocracy who he granted land and honorific

• titles. Some also joined the high clergy. This landed

aristocracy formed the backbone of the feudal system: the barons maintained order in their lands, provided the

Source: Palmer 2004

the barons maintained order in their lands, provided the king with soldiers and contributed to his treasury. The peasants lived in near-servitude. Over time, land was also distributed to soldiers as a reward for service thus creating knights. The stability of the system resulted in growth of towns and a new, wealthy merchant class. The knights and merchants formed the commons. Medieval England consisted of three basic socio-economic groups: the monarchy, the aristocracy and the commons.

The Birth of Parliament

• The kings convened Great Councils to keep in touch with the
• barons. The Councils discussed issues of war and peace,

but also the kings’ insatiable financial demands. The barons used finances to extend their influence over the kings’

• policies. The Great Councils of 1215 (which led to the

Magna Carta) and 1295 known as the Model Parliament are the most important. The Magna Carta placed the first, formal check on the king’s power. The Model Parliament brought

Source: Palmer 2004

check on the king’s power. The Model Parliament brought the Commons into politics through a kind of “no taxation without representation” agreement. The Great Councils were not parliaments, but they did establish “outer limits” on the king’s power. This required the monarchy to operate within a “circle of traditions and opinions.” The Councils ultimately morphed into a bicameral parliament with power shared among the monarchy, the House of Lords (aristocracy), and the House of Commons (masses). Before the 19th century, the latter still only represented male property holders or five percent of the population.

The Industrial Revolution

• The steam engine’s invention in the middle of 18th

century transformed Britain from an agrarian society into an industrial state. Factory and urban life produced an urban proletariat, or working class, that lived in poverty. Two new social classes arose: the bourgeoisie, or capitalist class, and the

Source: Palmer 2004

the bourgeoisie, or capitalist class, and the proletariat, or industrial working class. Workers demands surfaced through their organization into labor unions. Male workers began to be allowed to vote in 1867. Universal suffrage was approved in 1928, but some voters were more equal than others until 1949. As the electorate expanded, the power

• f the non-elected House of Lords decreased and

political parties emerged.

Political Parties

• The Tories and the Whigs, Britain’s two major parties, had

arisen out of informal parliamentary groupings by the 17th

• century. The Tories, or royalists, supported the Crown, the

landed aristocracy, and the dominant position of the Church of

• England. They became the Conservatives in the 19th century

although the media still uses the Tory label. The Whigs represented prosperous middle class interests: less restrictive economic control and reduced political roles for the monarchy and the church. The Whigs became the Liberal Party. The

Source: Palmer 2004

and the church. The Whigs became the Liberal Party. The Labour Party emerged in the early 1900s with the expansion of the vote. Labour replaced the Liberals as Britain’s second major party after World War I. Power has since alternated between the Conservatives and Labour. Twentieth century Conservatives are the champions of business interests. Labour attempted to transform Britain into a social democracy: politically democratic, but with nationalized industries and provisions for a wide range of welfare services to its citizens. The two parties maintained the UK as a mixed socialist- capitalist economy until 1979.

The Thatcher Revolution

• During Conservative Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher’s

eleven years in office (1979-1992), the “Thatcher revolution” produced four major changes: 1) a reassertion of the prime minister’s power; 2) the transformation of a corporatist economy into a market

• ne; 3) a widening of the gap between rich and poor with

an increase in the latter especially in the North and Scotland; 4) and a change in communal values to those

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Scotland; 4) and a change in communal values to those

• f individual ones. Thatcher ultimately lost favor within

her own party. John Major, her successor was defeated from within because of his pro-EU stance. Tony Blair’s New Labour won the 1997 elections big-time and moved into the Prime Minister’s residence at 10 Downing

• Street. The slogans of socialism, welfare and

nationalization disappeared. Labour moved to the political center and broke its subservience to the trade

• unions. Blair was replaced by Gordon Brown in 2007.

Blair as Prime Minister

• Blair’s popularity remained high through 2002 when he was

re-elected. He is the UK’s longest, continuous serving prime minister and has seen impressive economic growth, crime reduction and improvements in health care and education. His decision to support President George W. Bush’s rush to war in Iraq and unflinching support for Israel’s hard-line Sharon government, however, has produced in-fighting and challenges in Labour and almost cost him the May 2005

• elections. Blair has promised to be more “in touch with the

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challenges in Labour and almost cost him the May 2005

• elections. Blair has promised to be more “in touch with the

people,” to support an “opportunity society” for everyone, to ban religious discrimination - a priority to Britain’s Muslim minority, and to support 28 days a year paid leave for labor. He softened his support for the EU Constitution by promising a referendum. Labour won again, but with a narrow parliamentary majority (a loss of 47 seats and a decline in voter support from 62.7% of the electorate in 2001 to 37% in 2005). Meanwhile, the Tories, the Liberal Democrats and several smaller parties gained at Labour’s expense.

British Elections: 1997-2005

Party Seats in Commons Percent of Seats 1997 2001 2005** 1997 2001 2005 Labour 418 413 356 63.4 62.7 55.19 Conservatives 165 66 197 25 25.1 30.54 Liberal 46 52 62 7 7.9 9.61

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Liberal Democrats 46 52 62 7 7.9 9.61 Other Parties 30 28 30 4.6 4.3 4.65 Total 659* 659 646 100 100 99.9 *Including the speaker **Results for contested seats as announced and posted on webpage by the British electoral commission

The Political Institutions of Britain

• The British Government consists of the Crown and the

bicameral Parliament. Real power resides in the House of Commons, parliament’s lower chamber. The leader of the majority party forms a government, or cabinet, composed of the prime minister plus other senior political figures who serve either as cabinet ministers or as advisors. Government refers to the prime minister, the Cabinet and other relevant positions designated by the prime minister. This makes the prime minister the most powerful individual in the UK because he

Source: Palmer 2004

minister the most powerful individual in the UK because he dominates both the government and the most popular political

• party. The most important ministries are foreign affairs,

defense and treasury (the Chancellor of the Exchequer). The Lord Privy Seal manages the government’s program in the

• House. The Lord President of the Council chairs important

cabinet committees. Elections must be held at least every five years, but they can be scheduled sooner. An unlikely majority “vote of no confidence” in the House could cause a government to fall, but this is unlikely as long as a single party controls parliament.

Executive Power in Britain: Prime Ministers and Governments

• The British prime minister with strong support in the House is

more powerful than an American president. Why? The prime minister 1) has the prestige of holding the highest political office in the UK; 2) leads the party with a major say in determining legislation, selecting members of the Government, and in shaping electoral strategy because he or

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Government, and in shaping electoral strategy because he or she can time general elections during the five year electoral period; 3) chairs the Cabinet, sets its agenda and sums up the deliberations; and 4) is the focus of media’s political

• coverage. These powers are mostly informal: The British

Constitution is an unwritten set of traditions and much depends upon the skills and personality of the individual prime minister. These powers are also not absolute. They are constantly checked by the factions and personalities (wings) in the ruling party.

Powers of the British Prime Minister

• The power of the House of Commons is

absolute and cannot be overridden

• The power of the majority party in the Commons

is absolute and cannot be blocked by the

• pposition

Source: Palmer 2004

• The power of the Government is absolute

because members of the ruling party vote as a bloc

• The Prime Minister dominates the Government

in a kind of “elective dictatorship” according to John Smith, former Labour Party Leader, Economist, April 18, 1998.

Cabinet Government or Government by the Prime Minister?

• Whether the British Government is now

run by the cabinet - or the group of senior politicians who form the cabinet -or by a single individual, e.g. the prime minister, is

Source: Palmer 2004

single individual, e.g. the prime minister, is

• pen to debate. Thatcher and Blair

governments suggest that power has become more concentrated in a single individual.

British Governments Are Cohesive and Stable

• British Governments Are Cohesive and Stable because

they consist of a unified single majority party with members voting as a bloc so that the government’s programs cannot be derailed by the opposition. Strong party discipline and a “winner-take-all” electoral system are the pillars of this stability. Whip has two meanings: 1) a senior

Source: Palmer 2004

this stability. Whip has two meanings: 1) a senior member of parliament (MP) tasked to see the other MPs understand and vote the party-line; 2) formal instructions sent to party MPs prior to parliamentary votes. If the MPs of the majority party fail to bloc vote, the government will fall and members will face new elections. If members of the

• pposition do not vote as a bloc, they will not be able to

challenge the government in the future.

• Backbenchers are MPs not in the Government or in the
• pposition’s shadow cabinet.

Elections and Politics in Britain: Stability Versus Democracy

• Elections are run according to the single-member, simple-

plurality district electoral formula. The candidate who receives the most – not necessarily a majority of the - votes in a district wins. The cumulative effect is that a single party can win a majority of seats in the parliament but not a majority of the popular vote as happened to Labour in the May 2005 elections. This obviates the need for coalition governments in which two

Source: Palmer 2004

This obviates the need for coalition governments in which two

• r more political parties share power – often a recipe for

political instability. It also marginalizes the smaller parties. The big loser has been the Liberal Democratic Party because its voters are spread over many districts rather than concentrated. If the British electoral system used proportional representation, the Liberal Democrats would be a major gainer and presented with a chance to be part of a coalition

• government. The British elections for the EU Parliament use

the PR system and could pave the way for national and regional election reform.

Changing of the Guard

• New elections for the House of Commons are

normally held when the prime minister asks the monarch to dissolve parliament – a pro forma

• request. They are held three weeks after the

request avoiding the American perpetual campaign practice. A vote of no confidence also

Source: Palmer 2004

campaign practice. A vote of no confidence also requires new elections be held – but this is rarely used. By-elections are called to replace MPs who have resigned or died. The parliamentary majority party can also change prime ministers if it elects a new party leader. This is an internal party affair and does not cause a government to fall or new elections held.

Legislative Power in Britain: The Parliament

• The 659 elected member House of Commons has unlimited

formal powers. Generally, however, Commons ratifies the Government’s programs. Bills presented in the House have three readings and are considered by standing committees that make technical reviews. Once passed in either the House of Commons or Lords, a bill is sent to the other chamber for

Source: Palmer 2004

Commons or Lords, a bill is sent to the other chamber for

• debate. The House of Commons can override objections in the

House of Lords, but not vice versa. Almost all bills that are passed have Government support. During the Question Period, an hour a day four days a week, members of the House of Commons can question the Government on issues of

• concern. The prime minister takes questions that usually focus
• n foreign affairs and economics twice a week. The opposition

uses the period to highlight Government shortcomings. The majority party often highlights Government successes. MPs are also expected to look after constituency concerns, but party needs come first.

“To jaw-jaw is always better than to war-war.”

Source: Palmer 2004

better than to war-war.”

Winston Churchill, Speech at White House, June 26, 1954 in New York Times, June 27, 1954, p. 1

Legislative Power in Britain: The Parliament

• The 1,144 appointed or hereditary member House of

Lords has seen its power shrivel since the beginning of the 20th century. It has been reformed to reflect the changing dynamics of British society: the number of hereditary peers was reduced to 92 from 666 in 1999. Life peers are appointed as recognition for their outstanding service to the

Source: Palmer 2004

appointed as recognition for their outstanding service to the

• state. Lords serve in the Cabinet, can introduce and

amend some legislation. Lords main power is its ability to delay acts of the Commons for a year. This gives a bill’s

• pponents more time to gain public support. It has been

used to stall a Government plan to create a supreme court and also dilute anti-terrorist legislation. The continued existence of this undemocratically appointed body with a strong conservative bias is its most interesting facet.

The Crown: The Crisis of Commonness

• The monarch is Britain’s titular head of state.

Acts of the Government are all performed in the name of the monarch who symbolizes the continuity of Britain’s constitution. The myth of

Source: Palmer 2004

continuity of Britain’s constitution. The myth of the royal family embodies Britain’s glorious past. Because of the personal problems surrounding the royal family, popular support for the monarchy has fluctuated - although polls suggest that it still retains the support of a strong majority of British citizens.

Law and Politics in Britain

• The keys to this section on British law are: 1)

common law – or a legal system based on tradition and custom rather than a single written code; and 2) the fact that the British constitution cannot be interpreted by the judiciary as in the

Source: Palmer 2004

cannot be interpreted by the judiciary as in the U.S. Senior British judges, although technically politically neutral, tend towards conservatism – most educated at Oxford or Cambridge, Britain’s two elite universities. The British legal system is changing - more or less incorporating the European Convention on Human Rights and

• ther EU laws into British law of the land.

Government and Bureaucracy in Britain

• There are two bureaucratic groups that comprise

Britain’s civil service: an elite group of senior civil servants who run Britain’s large bureaucracy and a larger group of officials who implement policy. The former group, selected through an exam-based process, rises rapidly and is well paid. Because

Source: Palmer 2004

process, rises rapidly and is well paid. Because senior civil servants remain in position for years regardless of party in power, have specialized expertise and can make the system work their influence on policies is substantial. They are expected to be neutral politically and cannot run for

• ffice, but they come from the educated elite and

tend to avoid risks because of fear of audits and parliamentary investigations.

The Actors in British Politics

• Elites, Parties, Groups and Citizens all

play roles

Source: Palmer 2004

The Actors in British Politics

• The British political elite includes - in addition

to the Government - senior civil servants, senior judges, CEOs of large companies and very senior military officers. The debate over the ties

Source: Palmer 2004

between social class and political power remains

• unresolved. Although the most powerful political

positions are held by elected officials from the middle class, the elite schools fill far more positions than in the U.S.

The Actors in British Politics

• Parties and Politics: Although Labour and

Conservatives have alternated in power since the end of World War II, the fortunes of the Liberal Democrats seem on an up-swing. In May 2005, they won 62 seats in parliament – 11 more than in

• 2001. Eight fringe parties including Scottish, Welch

and Northern Irish nationalist parties won ten

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and Northern Irish nationalist parties won ten percent of the seats in the parliament. The three major parties are catch-all parties. Ideology is important but winning elections is paramount. Their national party organizations fundraise, campaign and coordinate local party units and networks of constituency organizations that nominate candidates in coordination with the national

• rganization.

The Actors in British Politics

• Parties and Politics, cont.

– The Conservative Party (Tories) is the party on the center right: the party of big business, small government and lower taxes. Members of the parliamentary group choose the party leader who then appoints other party

• fficials. Backbenchers meet as the “Committee of 1922”

to discuss issues, but take no votes. Local party

• rganizations are called Conservative Constituency

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• rganizations are called Conservative Constituency
• Associations. The Conservative Conference, a passive

gathering whose activities are defined by the parliamentary leaders, meets annually to debate policy

• issues. About half of the 6,000 potential participants
• attend. The party is rife with personality feuds, lack of

clear direction, a poor image and an aging membership. To revive its popular support, the party is becoming somewhat more participatory. The Tories gained 33 seats and 32.5% of the vote in the 2005 elections, but still not enough to topple Labour.

The Actors in British Politics

• Parties and Politics, cont.

– The Labour Party began as a coalition of labor unions and a variety of socialist groups in the early 1900s. The unions have dominated because of superior financial and

• rganizational power. Labour’s goal has been to force a

change in Britain’s distribution of wealth. The annual Labor Conference selects the party leader based upon a complex electoral college. Most Labourites come from

Source: Palmer 2004

complex electoral college. Most Labourites come from working or white-collar middle classes. The party’s large membership is due primarily to union connections whose members’ dues are usually deducted from their

• paychecks. Most members are passive. Labour is

strongest in industrial centers particularly England’s north and Scotland and it attracts more men, younger voters and non-Anglicans. Labour reshaped itself into “New Labour,” a business friendly party, in 1994 under the controlling and charismatic Tony Blair and handily trounced the Conservatives in 1997.

Some key differences between Conservative and Labour Parties

• Conservatives (center-right)

– Party of big business, small government and lower taxes. Critics call it the party of privilege and inequality – Government’s primary responsibility is to promote growth of business and industry – The larger the economic “cake” the easier for the Government to meet the people’s needs

Source: Palmer 2004

Government to meet the people’s needs – Supporters heaviest in southern England and high- technology centers

• Labour (center-left)

– Party of the trade unions and various socialist groups – Government’s primary responsibility is to assure an equitable distribution of Britain’s wealth and protect the health and welfare of its citizens – Supporters heaviest in Northern England and Scotland

The Actors in British Politics

• Parties and Politics, cont.

– The Liberal Democrats represent a coalition of the old Liberal Party which is a descendant of the Whigs and a group of moderates who broke with Labour in 1981 to form a new left of center social democratic party. The Lib-Dems strength rests in strong constituency networks

Source: Palmer 2004

Lib-Dems strength rests in strong constituency networks inherited from the Liberals and an open and democratic party conference. The party has gradually been gaining electoral strength, but because its constituency is dispersed, not concentrated in safe districts like those of Labour and the Tories, it has been the electoral loser. In the 2005 election it won 62 seats with 22% of the

• vote. If the election had been conducted using

proportional representation, the Lib-Dems would have won 144 of the 659 seats.

The Functions of British Political Parties

• The Functions of British Political Parties are

to 1) run the House of Commons; 2) keep the Government under scrutiny; 3) recruit and train future leaders; 4) organize, socialize and inform the British voters and keep the party leadership in touch with the people. Party competition

Source: Palmer 2004

in touch with the people. Party competition defines the major issues and provides the voters with ideologically based alternatives. Most importantly, the parties promote political moderation and stability because their strong internal discipline keeps Governments in power. Voters expect the victorious party to deliver on its promises and it has the power to do so.

British Pressure Groups and Politics

• Of Britain’s thousands of pressure groups, the most

powerful are the large economic peak associations (or umbrella organizations) such as the trade unions and the industrial groups. Similar groups represent bankers, farmers, doctors, civil servants and police. Other strong pressure groups are environmental, or support animal rights, human rights, and include those designed to help

Source: Palmer 2004

rights, human rights, and include those designed to help alleviate poverty. Membership in the Church of England is

• declining. Evangelical Christian and Islamist groups are on

the rise. The trade unions work through the Labour Party while business groups are closely affiliated with the Tories. Some groups – like the civil service, the doctors and police

• remain politically neutral but work closely with the

Government in designing legislation that affects their professions.

Citizens and Politics in Britain

• The electorate’s views are expressed through

elections, polls, civic action movements, and a free and vigorous media. Elections suggest that the British are becoming more centrist. By-election results provide politicians with early warnings of voter sentiment. Polls show British citizens are concerned about law and order, the economy,

Source: Palmer 2004

concerned about law and order, the economy, unemployment, health care. They also care about British membership in an increasingly centralized Europe and the future of Britain – given devolution

• f significant powers to Scotland, Wales and

Northern Ireland. Political demonstrations are a fact of life. It’s hard to gauge how much effect British opinions factor into political decision-making although it is clear the British public is engaged more in civic affairs.

The Context of British Politics: Culture, Economics and International Interdependence

• Britain’s unique political culture is determined by 1) a strong

sense of British identity; 2) popular belief in the legitimacy of its political institutions; 3) consensus on the unwritten political rules centered about a strong sense of “fair play; tolerance and patience” 4) high value on order and self-control; and 5) its abhorrence of violence. These characteristics are aspects of British culture that has stressed hard work, innovation and endurance as a key to prosperity. These values keep the

Source: Palmer 2004

endurance as a key to prosperity. These values keep the Government in check and guarantee civil liberties. Families, schools and the media pass on cultural values from one generation to the next. Britain faces more economic restructuring as smoke-stack industries give way to high tech and the service sector, but beyond that it needs to address the demands of its increasingly multi-ethnic, non-white population now about 7.1% most of whom have come from Britain’s former colonies in the Indian Subcontinent, the Middle East and Africa. Some observers suggest that the Thatcher revolution has undermined communal values and given way to concern for individual comfort and environmental harmony.

Political Economy

• The political conflict between Conservatives and

Labour corresponds to Britain’s economic map. Labour dominates in economically depressed areas like Scotland and north England; Conservatives in the high-tech prosperous

Source: Palmer 2004

Conservatives in the high-tech prosperous

• south. Fierce international economic

competition is forcing British industry to become more competitive since the economy survives on foreign trade. Britain, like the U.S., imports much more than it exports and outsources jobs to avoid high taxes and wages.

International Interdependence

• World War II reduced Britain to a second class power, a state which

soon thereafter not only lost all major colonies, but also one left with a crippled and outmoded industrial base. The dawn of nuclear weapons meant the Royal Navy – which had “ruled the waves” for centuries - could no longer protect the homeland. With the dawn of the Cold War, Britain sought U.S. protection under its nuclear shield and integrated its forces into NATO. The British Government has fostered a “special relationship” with the U.S. to ensure British interests are taken into consideration and supports U.S. foreign policy initiatives for better or

• worse. Britain’s mixed socialist-capitalist economy proved unable to

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• worse. Britain’s mixed socialist-capitalist economy proved unable to

withstand foreign competition. This, in turn, resulted in the “Thatcher Revolution.” Britain joined the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1971 and economic and environmental laws further “Europeanized” the UK after 1992 with the EU’s creation. European unification will reduce British sovereignty further – a touchy issue and one reason the British Government has not adopted the euro. The anti-EU Constitution vote in France and the Netherlands in June 2005 caused Blair to put the British referendum on ice. Britain remains a major world player – a permanent member of the UN Security Council, a member of the G-8 economic club and one of the EU’s “big three.” The British Commonwealth, an association of former British colonies, serves British trade interests.

Present Challenges and Future Prospects

Source: Palmer 2004

Future Prospects

Democracy and Stability

• Stability is not an issue in the world’s oldest

democracy, but locus of power is. The concentration of power in a single person is the primary question. Some powers are devolving to new regional parliaments in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland to meet growing nationalist

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and Northern Ireland to meet growing nationalist sentiments in these regions. The “winner-take- all” voting system that can produce a government ruled by single party without an electoral majority has been, and will be,

• questioned. Hereditary Lords have lost power

and a U.S.-style supreme court may come in the future.

Human Rights

• Britain’s social justice record is exemplary even

though, or perhaps because, it rests on the culture’s value of tolerance, not on a written Bill

• f Rights. The society, however, has been

under considerable stress as a result of its lengthy battle with the Irish Republican Army

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lengthy battle with the Irish Republican Army (IRA). A locus of Islamic terrorist networks in the UK has recently resulted in a new set of anti- terrorist laws. Crime has risen and law and

• rder have become a concern. Britain’s

increasing multi-ethnic character also strains the British approach to human rights. But steps are being taken to address abuses to racial and

• ther minorities.

Economic Growth and Quality of Life

• The “Thatcher Revolution” produced a dual society: a

middle class of managers and skilled workers (25% of the population) who prosper in the new environment and a lower one of minimally skilled, unemployed workers (now 37% of the population) locked in poverty. Britain’s population is aging with one employed person supporting

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population is aging with one employed person supporting

• ne retired – 40 percent with no pensions or adequate
• savings. American model comprehensive secondary

schools produce students with few marketable skills. Reforms of the university and health systems have been proposed, but the problem is money. Universities can charge increased fees, but this will make it more difficult for poorer students to enter. For the middle classes, life has become more hectic and less satisfying. Drug use has become more prevalent and youth unemployment severe.

The Environment

• Although the British are environmentally

conscious, Britain’s smoke-stack industrial plants make cleanup costs high. The issue is the trade-off between protecting

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issue is the trade-off between protecting the environment and preserving jobs. The more rigorous EU environmental legislation will determine the outcome and will be welcomed by many UK citizens.

Future Prospects

• Britain’s challenges are manageable. The

major problem is the state’s inability to provide a high quality of life for all citizens. The increasing divide between rich and poor is also rooted in British social

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poor is also rooted in British social structure and not easily solvable. Despite some British misgivings, its EU membership with free access to the large European market may prove the UK’s economic salvation.