SLIDE 6 Reference Question Method / DV Sample Answer The Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas (Westermarck, 1906) “Why do the moral ideas in general differ so greatly? And, on the other hand, why is there in many cases such a wide agreement?” “the survey of an unusually rich and varied field of research psychological, ethnographical, historical, juridical, theological” “mankind at large” Evolved moral emotions and similarities of human nature make prohibition of homicide & theft, and approval of charity, generosity, mutual aid & honesty, universal. Differences arise due to “external circumstances”, extended circles, reflection on motives & consequences, and supernatural beliefs. Traits Inculcated in Childhood: Cross-Cultural Codes 5 (Barry III, Josephson, Lauer, & Marshall, 1976) To what extent are traits (including fortitude, heroism, excellence, industry, obedience, generosity, trust and honesty) inculcated in children? Analysis of the Standard Cross Cultural Sample. 182 societies. ‘Somewhat’ to ‘moderately strongly’ in the majority of societies, with some sex differences. Comparative Deviance: Perception and law in six cultures (Newman, 1976) Do cultures differ in their disapproval of specific crimes? Anti-social offences rated for degree of seriousness / punishment. Samples from six countries (India, Indonesia, Iran, Italy, United States, & Yugoslavia) A “general consensus across all countries as to the extent that all acts should be tolerated”, “the amount of official punishment appropriate”, and relative rankings. Political Decision Making and Conflict: Additional Cross-Cultural Codes and Scales (Ross, 1983) What is the level of loyalty towards local community (and wider society)? Analysis of the Standard Cross Cultural Sample. 83 (84) societies Moderate’ to ‘especially high’ in 77/83 (and 60/84) societies. A Review of Cross-Cultural Studies on Moral Judgment Development Using the Defining Issues Test (Moon, 1986) Do cultures differ by Kohlberg's 'moral stages'? Review of cross-cultural studies using Defining Issues Test 6 comparisons of Western versus non- Western cultures; Ns≈28 ~10% difference in P-scores. An evolutionary analysis of rules regulating human inbreeding and marriage (Thornhill, 1991) What is the cross-cultural prevalence of incest rules, and why do they vary so much? Coding prohibitions against incest, inbreeding, intermarriage from HRAF & SCCS ethnographies. 129 societies Incest explicitly prohibited in 33/129 (26%) societies. Inbreeding & intermarriage prohibitions reflect variation in patrilocality & paternity confidence, lineage solidarity & inheritance, stratification & concentration of wealth. "Blood Feuds": Cross-Cultural Variations in Kin Group Vengeance (Ericksen & Horton, 1992) Is kin group vengeance considered legitimate? Analysis of the Standard Cross Cultural Sample. 168 societies. Legitimate in 90 (and a moral imperative in 38) societies. Universals in the content and structure of values: Theory and empirical tests in 20 countries (Schwartz, 1992) To what extent is the content, structure and priority of values cross-culturally universal? Ratings (-1-7) of 56 values (11 types) subject to Smallest Space Analysis. 40 samples (Ns≈200) (of students and teachers) in 20 countries. Conformity, Tradition, Benevolence and Universalism “close to universals”. ‘Value priorities’: “tradition, conformity, and benevolence...more important in communal societies...self- direction, stimulation, and universalism...more important in contractual societies.” CONAN: An Electronic Code-Text Data-Base for Cross-Cultural Studies (Lang, 1998) What is the level of loyalty towards ethnic group? Analysis of the Standard Cross Cultural Sample. 84 societies. ‘Middle’ to ‘high’ in 45/86 societies. 'Economic Man' in Cross-cultural Perspective: Behavioral experiments in 15 small-scale societies (Henrich et al., 2005) Is fairness (and trust) a human universal, and / or influenced by social environment? Ultimatum (and public goods) games. 15 (6) small scale societies on four continents. Fairness (and trust) exhibited in all societies; variation related to degree of market integration, importance of cooperation, and patterns of everyday life. Shared Virtue: The Convergence of Valued Human Strengths Across Culture and History (Dahlsgaard, Peterson, & Seligman, 2005) Are there any ubiquitous / widely valued virtues? Selective literature review Ancient texts from eight traditions (Confucianism, Taoism, Buddhism, Hinduism, Athenian philosophy, Christianity, Judaism, Islam) Six recurrent virtues: courage, justice, humanity, temperance, wisdom, and transcendence. Families Across Cultures: A 30-Nation Psychological Study (Georgas, Berry, Vijver, Kagitçibasi, & Poortinga, 2006) Do people feel a moral obligation to their kin? Family Values Scale (self-report questionnaire). 30 countries. Yes, with some variation across countries (η2=0.29) Standard Cross-Cultural Sample (Murdock & White, 2006) What are the norms regarding taking revenge? Analysis of the Standard Cross Cultural Sample. 80 societies. Prescribed in 48/80 societies. Character strengths in fifty-four nations and the fifty US states (Park, Peterson, & Seligman, 2006) What virtues do people ascribe to themselves? Values in Action Inventory of Strengths (self- report questionnaire). 54 nations. “People everywhere see themselves as possessing the same interpersonal strengths [and] lacking the same strengths of temperance.” A Dissociation Between Moral Judgments and Justifications (Hauser, Cushman, Young, Kang-Xing Jin, & Mikhail, 2007) Do different populations observe the principle of double effect? Internet-based trolley problems contrasting necessary / incidental harm. Samples from Australia, Canada, US and UK No significance difference between populations. Mapping the Moral Domain (Graham et al., 2011) Do cultures differ on five moral foundations? Moral Foundations Questionnaire (Harm/ Care, Fairness/Reciprocity, Ingroup/Loyalty, Authority/Respect, and Purity/Sanctity) Eastern cultures (South Asia, East Asia, and Southeast Asia; n = 2,258) & Western cultures (United States, United Kingdom, Canada, and Western Europe; n = 104,893). Minuscule differences between East and West. Eastern participants scored higher on all measures; Ingroup (d=0.08), and Purity (d = 0.06) and Harm, Fairness, and Authority (ds < 0.04). A Cross-Cultural Study of Noblesse Oblige in Economic Decision-Making (Fiddick, Cummins, Janicki, Lee, & Erlich, 2013) Is noblesse oblige a cross-cultural norm? Self-report responses to cheating, in vignettes, as boss or employee. Samples (Ns≈54) from: Australia, Canada, Germany, Japan, Singapore, UK, USA. ‘Bosses’ “more willing to continue the arrangement . . . to feel they had been treated fairly [and to feel] less animosity toward their cheating partners, and believed they got the better deal”. No difference between countries What predicts religiosity? A multinational analysis of reproductive and cooperative morals (Weeden & Kurzban, 2013) Are there differences between the moral values of different countries / regions? (A re-analysis of World Values Survey data.) Questionnaire items rating the justifiability of cooperative (eg lying) and reproductive (eg homosexuality) morals. ~90 countries / ~10 regions Little variation between countries & regions on cooperative morals (R2s=0.09, 0.02); more on reproductive morals (0.22, 0.14).
Previous empirical work
- Some work showing some types of
cooperation considered morally good in some cultures
- But no study looking at all types in
all the cultures
- Different measures in different
places make the results difficult to combine
- No comprehensive cross-cultural
survey of moral values (even World Values Survey.)
- As a consequence, opinions vary
(Brown ‘v’ Prinz)
