Michael Spittle, Victoria University Friday 28 Feb 2014 MCG VCE PE - - PowerPoint PPT Presentation

Friday 28 Feb 2014 MCG

Skill learning principles and practice

Michael Spittle, Victoria University

VCE PE Study Design Unit 2: Area of Study 1

• Study Design:
• Outcome:

– explain the application of a range of skill learning principles used by a coach

• Key Knowledge:

– skill learning principles such as stages of learning (cognitive, associative and autonomous), skill learning processes and the role of feedback in skill learning –

• pen and closed skill and sport continuum;

comparing environmental stability and instability – types of practice and transfer of practice

• Key Skills:

– apply principles of learning to practical situations – identify factors that influence coaching and learning at different stages of learning – evaluate coaching methods and justify their appropriateness in a variety of settings

• Motor Learning / Skill Acquisition Principles
• Stages of learning
• Skill Classification
• Feedback

– What (Content) – How often (Frequency) – When (Timing)

• Practice design

– Amount – Distribution – Variability

• Transfer
• Some lab activities to illustrate (see these

slides and resources provided)

• “undertake laboratory activities that

investigate the role of feedback in skill learning” (VCE PE Study Design 2011‐2014)

Resources:

• Copies of powerpoint

slides

• Suggested textbook:

– Spittle, M. (2013). Motor learning and skill acquisition: Applications for physical education and sport. South Yarra: MacMillan

Resources:

• Handout

February 2014 Skill principles and practice: Michael Spittle “This session will provide some ideas on how to teach and incorporate motor learning and skill acquisition principles such as skill classification, feedback, and practice design into teaching VCE PE Unit 2.” Suggested textbook for reference: Spittle, M. (2013). Motor learning and skill acquisition: Applications for physical education and sport. South Yarra: MacMillan) Resources: This resource provides some activities for students that link to the material in the session.

Table of Contents

Stages of Learning:!.........................................................................................................! 3!

Laboratory Activity: Stages of learning!...........................................................................! 3! Classroom Activity: Calculate your hours of deliberate practice (from Spittle, 2013).!..............................................................................................................................................! 4!

Skill classification:! ...........................................................................................................! 5!

Classroom Activity: Skill Classification! ...........................................................................! 5! Movement activity: Skill Classification!............................................................................! 6!

Practice design! ..................................................................................................................! 7!

Classroom Activity: Distribution of Practice!.................................................................! 7! Laboratory Activity: Distribution of practice!.................................................................! 8! Observation Activity: Practice Variability!.......................................................................! 9! Laboratory Activity: Practice variability! ........................................................................! 10!

Feedback! ...........................................................................................................................! 11!

Classroom activity: Classifying feedback.! ...................................................................! 11! Laboratory Activity: Frequency of Feedback!.............................................................! 12!

Transfer of learning! ......................................................................................................! 13!

Classroom Activity: Transfer of tactics!........................................................................! 13! Movement Activity: Transfer of movement skills! ......................................................! 13! Movement Activity: Comparing transfer of tactical skills! ......................................! 13!

Stages of learning

• Various models

– Fitts and Posner’s (1967) three‐stage model – Gentile’s (1972, 2000) two‐stage model – Three‐stage dynamic systems view (Bernstein 1967)

• Considerations when exploring models

– Rate of progress varies from learner to learner – Some learners will not progress through all stages – Different skills will be at different stages of learning – Gradual movement across the stages (not a clear jump from one stage to the next)

Fitts and Posner’s three‐stage model

Gentile’s two‐stage model

Dynamic systems and stages of learning

Example Activities

Laboratory Activity: Stages of learning Purpose: To explore changes which occur in the learning of a motor skill. Method: Set up skill stations to complete 5 skill activities. In pairs studnets move from one station to the next to complete the skills from invasion sports. At each station students complete 5 trials on each skill. Record the average score on each skill for each participant. Observe your partner perform the skill. In the observation identify some key characteristics of the movement and identify which stage of learning you believe they are currently in for each skill. Example skill stations: Skill 1. Basketball dribbling Skill 2. Soccer juggling. Skill 3. Australian Football handpass. Skill 4. Netball goal shooting. Skill 5. Hockey push pass. Results: Record the performance of the participants and your observation of their

• performance. For each participant complete a separate recording sheet. From your
• bservation, report on the stages of learning for each participant on each skill.

Discussion questions:

• 1. Describe the experience of learners as they progress through the three

stages of learning in Fitts and Posner’s model.

• 2. Based on your assessment of the stage of learning for each skill, describe

what you would do now to help the learner develop their skill further.

Sport expertise

• Some people develop their skill to a stage

where they become elite or expert in a field

• Example model:

– Deliberate practice model of expertise (Ericsson, Krampe & Tesch‐Roômer 1993)

Deliberate practice model

• To reach expertise

– 10000 hours or 10 years of deliberate

• Deliberate practice

– Effortful, directed at future performance rather than immediate reward, motivated by the goal of improving performance rather than enjoyment, and is closely monitored and instructed

• Characteristics of expertise

– Takes extensive practice – Tends to be domain specific (little transfer) – Difficult for those who start later in a sport to accumulate enough hours of deliberate practice – Specialise and start deliberate practice at a very young age to become an elite performer

Estimates of amount of practice for sport expertise

Activities

Activity: Calculate your hours of deliberate practice (from Spittle, 2013). Researchers have estimated how much practice performers in different sports have performed on their way to becoming experts. Estimates of amount of practice towards expertise in sport (Adapted from Kottke, Halpern, Easton, Ozel, & Burrill, 1978). Activity Performer Repetitions Estimate Football Pass Quarterback 1.4 million 15 yrs x 200 days x 4 hrs x 2 min Football Punt Player 0.8 million 200 days x 5 days x 45 weeks x 15 yrs Baseball Throw Pitcher 1.6 million throws 3 min a throw x 80 min x 300 days x 10 yrs Netball Shot Goal Shooter 598,000 shots 200 shots x5 days x 46 weeks x 13 years To reach 10,000 hours of deliberate practice you would need to practice about 2.75 hours a day every day of the year for 10 years (2.75 x 365 x 10 = 10, 037). How much practice do you need to do? To estimate how long it would take you to accumulate 10,000 hours at your current practice level (and this is assuming that all the practice that you do is “deliberate practice”):

• 1. How many hours per week on average you practice in your sport per week during

the season? Multiply that by the number of weeks of the season. ______

• 2. How many hours per week on average you practice in your sport per week during

the pre-season? Multiply that by the number of weeks of the season. ______

• 3. How many hours per week on average you practice in your sport per week during

the pre-season? Multiply that by the number of weeks of the season. ______

• 4. Add the 3 practice figures together to work out how much practice you do per year.

_____________

• 5. To work out how many years it will take to get to 10,000 hours, divide 10,000 by

the amount of practice you do per year. ________ How much practice have you already done? You can also estimate how many hours you have already achieved by working out how many hours you have done for each year you have played.

Motor skill classification

• Motor skill

– A voluntary goal‐directed activity that we learn through practice or experience that requires movement of the body or limbs to achieve the goal – One‐dimensional classification

Precision of the movement

Gross Fine  Small muscles  Precision  Large muscles  Force / power Dart throwing Drawing Weightlifting High jump Bowling in cricket Typing Amount of Precision Putting in golf Throwing

Organisation of the skill

Discrete  Clear beginning and end  One distinct movement  Typically short in duration Running Throwing Catching Bowling in cricket Swimming Organisation of the Skill Putting in golf Continuous  Arbitrary beginning and end  Repetitive movements  Typically longer in duration Serial  Several discrete actions  Linked together  Specific order Gymnastics routine

Stability of the environment

Closed  Stable predictable environment  Self-paced  Typically a stereotyped movement Dart Throwing Tackling in football Bowling in cricket Stability of the Environment Putting in golf Open  Variable and unpredictable environment  Externally-paced  Movement adapted to environment Passing in netball Batting in cricket Basketball free-throw

Activities

Classroom Activity: Skill Classification Classify the following movement skills as fine or gross, open or closed, and discrete, serial or continuous by ticking the box that BEST represents the skill. Skill Fine Gross Open Closed Continuous Serial Discrete e.g., Running    Passing in rugby Putting in golf Cricket bowling Serve in volleyball Cycling Drop punt in Australian football Cricket batting Tackling in rugby Forehand in squash Swimming Trapping in hockey High Jump Heading in soccer Backhand in tennis Archery Goalshooting in netball Did you have any difficulty classifying skills? Why were some skills more difficult to classify than others? Do you think that the classifications help you to understand the nature of the skill?

Activities

Movement activity: Skill Classification Play a game or sport (e..g, netball, football, soccer, tennis, softball). List up to five critical motor skills involved in the game or sport and classify each of the motor skills according to the one-dimensional classification schemes: Name of skill: Fine Gross Open Closed Continuous Serial Discrete e.g., Catching    1: 2: 3: 4: 5:

Practice Design

• Distribution
• Variability

Practice Distribution

• Practice distribution

– Spacing of practice

• Should you spread practice out so that learners get more rest or should you bunch

practice together and provide more work than rest?

Distributed Practice Massed Practice Vs

Practice distribution

Massed Practice Distributed Practice 2 x 4 hour session a week for 2 weeks Sessions Examples 2 x 2 hour sessions for 4 weeks 2 x 1 hour sessions a week for 8 weeks Trials Kicking skill Trials Running skill 1 sec rest 10 secs rest 30 secs rest 30 sec rest 1 mins rest 5 mins rest

Practice distribution and sessions

• Research:

– Benefit for distributed practice – Scheduling shorter and more frequent practice sessions is more effective for learning than scheduling fewer but longer sessions

Distributed Practice Massed Practice 1 x 6 hours 6 x 1 hours 3 x 2 hours

Practice distribution and trials

Skill type Continuous skills: Distributed Discrete skills: Massed

Activities

Classroom Activity: Distribution of Practice For each of the following movement skills decide whether massed or distributed practice would be beneficial for skill acquisition. Movement skill Massed practice Distributed practice e.g., Hockey goalshooting  Sprinting Freestyle swimming Soccer passing Rugby goalkicking Cycling For each of the movement skills explain why you made your decision on whether massed or distributed practice would be beneficial.

Activities

Laboratory Activity: Distribution of practice Purpose: To explore the effects of massed and distributed practice on learning a movement skill. Method: For this laboratory activity your class will practice a movement skill using massed and distributed practice and compare which practice schedule led to better performance. Procedure: Practice a movement skill using massed or distributed practice and record your scores. Half the class should practice using a massed schedule and half should practice with a distributed schedule. You will need to set up several stations to complete the activity in small groups to collect the data (e.g., pairs or groups of 4). Every student in the group can complete the activity in turns while other students record their scores Collate the class scores to get a class average for each practice schedule. Example skills (chose one):  Paddle ball hit to target  Sofcrosse throw to target  Tennis hit to target  Throw to target  Football handpass to target Example skill description (paddle ball strike):  Hit (strike) a tennis ball to a wall target (e.g., archery target)  The ball is to be bounced off the floor prior to striking it with the paddle  The participant is to complete 30 trials  The distance to hit from should be around 5 m  The centre of the target should be approximately 1 m off the floor Practice conditions:  Massed practice: 5 second rest between each hit  Distributed practice: 30 seconds rest between each hit Results: Record your score on each hit so you can get an overall score. Add your score to the class data and compare the average scores for massed and distributed practice. Questions:  Which practice schedule led to better performance? Why do you think that was?  Which practice schedule did people in the class prefer to practice with?  When do you think it would be better to use a massed practice schedule and when do you think it would be better to use a distributed practice schedule?

Practice Variability

• “perfect practice makes perfect”

– High performance levels during practice produce the best learning?

• Helps memory of the movement?
• Mistakes made will lead to learners learning those errors?
• Mastering the fundamentals through repetition?

– Practicing the same skill repeatedly will lead to better learning?

• If you are like me, many of your learning experiences in physical education

and sport would have involved repetitive practice of skills.

• But is repetitive practice of the same skill in the same way the most

effective way of practicing skills?

• “Repetition without repetition”

Introducing Practice Variability in Physical Education and Sport

Practice variability Varying the skill (Interskill) Practicing different skills (e.g., passing, shooting, dribbling) Varying practice conditions (Intraskill) Practicing the same skill with different practice conditions or different variations of the skill (e.g., passing different distances, passing to a moving or stationary targets) Practice schedules Practice schedules Constant Variable Blocked Serial Random

> Variability (variable or random practice) = worse practice performance but better learning

Contextual Interference Effect

• Action Plan Reconstruction Explanation?

Blocked practice Pass Pass Pass Pass Pass Dribble Shoot High Contextual Interference (Interference of practice on other skills between practice attempts on passing) Pass Random practice Low Contextual Interference (Little interference between practice attempts on passing)

Implementing Practice Variability

High Medium Low Level of interference Variable / Random Constant / Blocked and Variable / Random Constant / Blocked Advanced Intermediate Beginner Skill level Type of practice

Activities

Observation Activity: Practice Variability Reflect on the types and amount of practice variability that occur in a practice session Purpose: To explore the levels of variability in a practice session. Method:  With permission from the instructor, observe a practice session or lesson in physical education or sport. For the session, observe and record the activities in the session on a session (lesson) plan.  Your task is the to analyse the activities in the session in relation to practice variability Results:  Record the details of the practice session on a session plan. For each activity analyse the level of practice variability. (Provide an example session plan?) Questions:

• 1. How much variability was present in the practice session?
• 2. Was the level of practice variability appropriate for the nature of the skill

(open and closed) and the environmental conditions in which the leaners will perform the skills will be performed?

• 3. How could you improve the activities?
• 4. Was the level of practice variability appropriate for the age and level of skill of

the learners

Activities

Laboratory Activity: Practice variability (Lab from Spittle, M. (2013). Motor learning and skill acquisition: Applications for physical education and sport. South Yarra: MacMillan) Purpose: To explore how variable and constant practice influence the learning of a skill. Method: The task involves throwing a ball with a sofcrosse stick to hit a target as accurately as possible. Equipment  Sofcrosse balls  Sofcrosse sticks  Targets (use archery targets taped to the wall or targets drawn on the wall)  Tape measures (to measure throwing distance) Procedure: The participant is to throw a ball overhand with the sofcrosse stick so that it will hit a target as near to the bullseye as possible. The centre of the target should be approximately 1.2 m off the floor. Score the task for hits on the bullseye target with lower scores for peripheral targets (/10). Each participant is to complete 30 trials in 6 blocks of 5 trials during practice with a 10-second rest between each trial. The total of each block should be used as the performance score. After practice, each participant is to complete a transfer test of 10 throws at the target (2 blocks of 5 throws). The task can be completed in pairs, with one person acting as the experimenter and the other as the participant. Once you complete all practice trials and the retention test, the pairs can swap roles so that you both complete the lab exercise. Record the scores for each practice trial and retention trial. Practice conditions:  Constant Practice Condition: Participants in the Constant Practice Condition complete all 30 practice trials from a distance of 2 metres from the target.  Variable Practice Condition: The variable practice should complete one throw from each of the following distances in distance in each practice block of 5 throws: 2 metres, 3 metres, 4 metres, 6 metres, and 7 metres. The transfer test should be completed after 5 minutes of rest. The participant is to complete 10 throws in 2 blocks of 5 throws from a distance of 5 metres from the target. Results: Collect the group data. Present the scores for each practice condition on the 6 practice blocks and the transfer blocks on a graph (line graph). Discussion questions

• 1. Did practice variability help transfer the skill learning to performance of a new

skill variation?

• 2. Why might variable practice have been beneficial or not for adapting the skill

to a new skill variation? Does this relate to theories and research findings on practice variability?

• 3. Design a practice drill for sofcrosse throwing you could use in a practice

session that would take advantage of practice variability.

Feedback

• Feedback

– Information learners receive about their performance

• Critical learning variable in the physical education teaching,

coaching, and motor learning literature.

Feedback Task-intrinsic feedback Augmented feedback (AF) Visual Auditory Proprioceptive Tactile Knowledge of results (KR) Knowledge of performance (KP)

Augmented Feedback Issues

• What (Content)
• How often (Frequency)

Content (What)

Content Issues Should you provide feedback: Example KR and KP about the outcome of movement or the process of movement? Should you tell the learner that their kick missed the goal or that they didn’t extend their knee? Correct and incorrect feedback

• n the errors the learner is making or on the

correct elements of their performance? Should you tell the learner that they got their feet in the right position for the shot or that they didn’t use their arm enough? Precision of feedback that is very precise or not? Should you tell the learner that their arm needs to bend a bit less or that their arm needs to bend 15 degrees less?

Activities

Classroom activity: Classifying feedback. Classify each of the following as either KR or KP. KR KP e.g., Coach telling a player to “Keep your head up”  A player seeing the ball fly off the bat and over the fence in cricket. Coach telling a player “That throw was more than 45 metres” Physical education teacher telling a student to “Rotate your shoulder more” A player feeling their arm move during a golf swing. Physical education teacher telling a student “That shot was spot on target”

Frequency (How Often)

• Every time a learner practices a skill?
• Every second time they practice?
• Every fifth time?
• Would it be better to keep telling the learner

what to do or allow them some opportunities to work it out for themselves?

Frequency (How Often)

• Traditionally: more feedback = better learning.
• Later research: contradict this
• Reducing frequency = better learning
• Optimal frequency??
• Individual vs group instruction.
• Giving too much feedback hinders learning, as does not giving enough feedback.
• Too much feedback =

– Can stop you from thinking about the movement – Using your own intrinsic feedback

• Give feedback at frequent intervals but also has an opportunity to work things out

for themselves using their own intrinsic feedback

Activities

Laboratory Activity: Frequency of Feedback Purpose: To explore the effects of different frequencies of KR feedback on performing a movement skill. Method: For this laboratory activity your class will practice a movement skill using different feedback frequencies and compare which feedback frequency led to better performance. Procedure: Practice a movement skill when intrinsic feedback is removed (using blindfolds) and frequencies of KR feedback are provided. The class should be divided into 4 different feedback frequency conditions: No KR, 25% KR, 50% KR, and 100% KR. (each student shoud only complete one condition). Complete the activity in small groups to collect the data (e.g., pairs or groups of 4), with one person acting as the participant and other group members as the experimenters. Collate the class scores to get a class average for each feedback frequency. Example possible skill and activities:  Bean bag throwing skill to floor target  Sofcrosse throw to a wall target  Frisbee throw to a hoop target  Bocce throw to a floor target (each would be completed while participant is blindfoleded to remove intrinsic feedback) Practice conditions:  No KR: Participants are to be provided no feedback on the outcome of their throws  25% KR: Participants are to be provided with feedback on the outcome of their throw only on every 4th throw  50% KR: Participants are to be provided with feedback on the outcome of their throw on every 2nd throw  100% KR: Participants are to be provided with feedback on the outcome of their throw on every throw Provide feedback about the outcome of the skill (KR), e.g., score (e.g., 10 for a bullseye down to 1 for the outermost circle or 0 for missing the target) and direction (e.g., long or short or left or right of traget). Results: Record your score on each throw to the target so you can get an overall

• score. Add your score to the class data and compare the average scores for the four

feedback conditions. Questions:  Which feedback frequency led to better performance? Why do you think that was?  Which feedback frequency did people in the class prefer to practice with?  When do you think it would be better to gives lots of feedback and when do you think it would be better to use give less feedback?

Transfer of learning

• Influence of previous experience on the

learning of a new skill or on performing a skill in a new context

– Transfer of movement skills – Transfer of tactical skills

Transfer of movement skills

• Movement skills in games and sports are often

similar

– e.g., Throwing (baseball, softball, cricket, and rounders, darts, serving in tennis)

• = you can sometimes transfer the movement

skills that you learn in one game or sport to

• ther games or sports

Types of movement skill transfer

• Researchers in motor learning describe different types of transfer

Type of transfer Description Example Positive Enhances Cricket throwing to baseball throwing Negative Hinders Badminton forehand to tennis forehand Zero No effect Australian football handpass to gymnastics vault Near Similar skills or performance contexts Practicing a golf swing on the driving range to playing a round of golf Far Different skills or performance contexts. Chess tactics to soccer tactics Intertask One skill to another skill Hockey push pass to softball batting Intratask Variations of the skill or performance context Lacrosse goalshooting practice to shooting in a game of lacrosse Bilateral One limb to another limb Kicking with one foot transfer to kicking with the

• ther foot

Transfer of tactical skills

• Different tactics are relevant to different games, but there are often

a number of similarities between different types of games

• = strategies and tactics can transfer from one game to another
• Tactical similarities:

– Invasion games

• Gaining and maintaining possession of the ball
• Creating space
• Occupying or blocking up space and defending the goal area

– Net/wall games

• Place the ball away from your opponent

– Striking/fielding games

• Hit the ball away from the fielders to maximise time to score runs

– Target games

• Accuracy in relation to target

Activities

Classroom Activity: Transfer of tactics Identify the main tactics in a sport that might transfer to other sports. Pick a game or sport you know well.

• 1. What are 2 of the main tactics in the game?
• 2. What are two other sports that have similar tactics?
• 3. How are those sports different from your sport?

Activities

Movement Activity: Transfer of movement skills Practice a series of movement skills from one type of game (e.g., invasion games or target games) and see if any of the movement skill transfers to another movement

• skill. For example, you could choose net/wall games and have some members of

your class practice hitting a bat tennis forehand, some practice a tennis forehand, and some practice a downball strike. After a period of time practicing one skill move

• n to practice the other skills. You could record your scores for each skill by using a

target on a wall to hit to and see which skill you performed best on. Did any of the practice on one skill help you in performing one of the other skills? Which skill seemed to transfer the most to the skills? Why do you think that was? Report back to the class on your findings.

Activities

Movement Activity: Comparing transfer of tactical skills This activity involves you playing some different games with your classmates and compering the tactics, strategies and game plans in those games.

• 1. As a class, choose an invasion game to play. Play this game and discuss the

main tactics, strategies and game plans that are being used.

• 2. Next, choose another invasion game to play. Play this game and as you are

playing distinguish the main tactics, strategies and game plans that are being used and compare these with the tactics, strategies and game plans that you used in the other invasion game. What are the similarities and are there any differences? Why might these similarities and differences exist?

• 3. Finally, choose a net/wall game to play. Play this game and as you are

playing distinguish the main tactics, strategies and game plans that are being used and compare these with the tactics, strategies and game plans you used in the invasion games. What are the differences and are there any similarities?

Summary

• Stages of learning
• Skill classification
• Feedback
• Practice design
• Transfer