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JME Sydney, Australia February 8, 2018 Slide 1 Outline - - PowerPoint PPT Presentation

Apr 03, 2024 •369 likes •1.71k views

Electrochemical Capacitor Potential in the Energy Industry John R. Miller JME, Inc and Case Western Reserve University 23500 Mercantile Road, Suite K Beachwood, Ohio 44122 jmecapacitor@att.net 216-595-9630 UNSW Public Research Seminar JME

  1. 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- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + ELECTROLYTE ELECTROLYTE ELECTROLYTE ELECTROLYTE ELECTROLYTE ELECTROLYTE ELECTROLYTE • Discovered by Helmholtz in 1800s 2 on electrode surface C ~ 10 m F/cm • • Physical charge storage (not chemical) • Voltage limited--electrolyte decomposition potential • High-surface-area electrodes--large capacitances JME Slide 23

  3. DOUBLE LAYER CAPACITOR CONCEPT + + - - + + - - v v v v v v v v v + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 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- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + ELECTROLYTE ELECTROLYTE ELECTROLYTE ELECTROLYTE ELECTROLYTE ELECTROLYTE ELECTROLYTE d~1 nm • Discovered by Helmholtz in 1800s 2 on electrode surface C ~ 10 m F/cm • • Physical charge storage (not chemical) • Voltage limited--electrolyte decomposition potential • High-surface-area electrodes--large capacitances Electric Double Layer JME Slide 24

  4. Typical Electrochemical Capacitor Construction Electrodes typically ~1500 m 2 /g ~3000 F, 2.85 V > 10 6 cycles, >2000 hr life @ 65 o C C/M > 100 F/g ~1 second response time JME Slide 25

  5. Typical Electrochemical Capacitor Construction Electrodes typically ~1500 m 2 /g C/M > 100 F/g JME Slide 26

  6. Typical Electrochemical Capacitor Construction Electrodes typically ~1500 m 2 /g ~3000 F, 2.85 V > 10 6 cycles, >2000 hr life @ 65 o C C/M > 100 F/g ~1 second response time JME Slide 27

  7. Small Electrochemical Capacitor Products NEC-Tokin cap-XX Danionics PowerStor General Capacitor FastCAP Panasonic ELNA JME Slide 28

  8. Large EC Products ELIT Maxwell Nippon Chemi-Con Eaton ESMA Ioxus LS Mtron Wima Yunasko JME Meiden Batscap JSR Micro Slide 29

  9. EC -- Battery Comparison PROPERTY BATTERY EC Storage mechanism Chemical Physical Power limitation Reaction kinetics, Separator ionic conductivity mass transport Energy limitation Electrode mass Electrode surface area Output voltage Constant value Sloping value (SOC known precisely) Charge rate Limited by reaction Very high, same as rates discharge rate Cycle life limitations Physical stability, Side reactions chem. reversibility Life limitation Thermodynamic Side reactions stability JME Slide 30

  10. EC -- Battery Comparison PROPERTY BATTERY EC Storage mechanism Chemical Physical Power limitation Reaction kinetics, Separator ionic conductivity mass transport Energy limitation Electrode mass Electrode surface area Output voltage Constant value Sloping value (SOC known precisely) Charge rate Limited by reaction Very high, same as rates discharge rate Cycle life limitations Physical stability, Side reactions chem. reversibility Life limitation Thermodynamic Side reactions stability JME Slide 31

  11. EC -- Battery Comparison PROPERTY BATTERY EC Storage mechanism Chemical Physical Power limitation Reaction kinetics, Separator ionic conductivity mass transport Energy limitation Electrode mass Electrode surface area Output voltage Constant value Sloping value (SOC known precisely) Charge rate Limited by reaction Very high, same as rates discharge rate Cycle life limitations Physical stability, Side reactions chem. reversibility Life limitation Thermodynamic Side reactions stability JME Slide 32

  12. EC -- Battery Comparison PROPERTY BATTERY EC Storage mechanism Chemical Physical Power limitation Reaction kinetics, Separator ionic conductivity mass transport Energy limitation Electrode mass Electrode surface area Output voltage Constant value Sloping value (SOC known precisely) Charge rate Limited by reaction Very high, same as rates discharge rate Cycle life limitations Physical stability, Side reactions chem. reversibility Life limitation Thermodynamic Side reactions stability JME Slide 33

  13. EC -- Battery Comparison PROPERTY BATTERY EC Storage mechanism Chemical Physical Power limitation Reaction kinetics, Separator ionic conductivity mass transport Energy limitation Electrode mass Electrode surface area Output voltage Constant value Sloping value (SOC known precisely) Charge rate Limited by reaction Very high, same as rates discharge rate Cycle life limitations Physical stability, Side reactions chem. reversibility Life limitation Thermodynamic Side reactions stability JME Slide 34

  14. EC -- Battery Comparison PROPERTY BATTERY EC Storage mechanism Chemical Physical Power limitation Reaction kinetics, Separator ionic conductivity mass transport Energy limitation Electrode mass Electrode surface area Output voltage Constant value Sloping value (SOC known precisely) Charge rate Limited by reaction Very high, same as rates discharge rate Cycle life limitations Physical stability, Side reactions chem. reversibility Life limitation Thermodynamic Side reactions stability JME Slide 35

  15. Energy Storage Technology Comparison Charge/ Specific STORAGE Cycle Life COST discharge Energy TECHNOLOGY (80% DOD) ($/kWh) time (s) (Wh/kg) 2,000,000 1,000,000 20,000 1,000 Lead Acid 10 +4 >10 +2 30 100 Battery JME Slide 36

  16. Energy Storage Technology Comparison Charge/ Specific STORAGE Cycle Life COST discharge Energy TECHNOLOGY (80% DOD) ($/kWh) time (s) (Wh/kg) 2,000,000 1,000,000 20,000 10 +2 >10 +3 Li-ion Battery 100 1,000 Lead Acid 10 +4 >10 +2 30 100 Battery JME Slide 37

  17. Energy Storage Technology Comparison Charge/ Specific STORAGE Cycle Life COST discharge Energy TECHNOLOGY (80% DOD) ($/kWh) time (s) (Wh/kg) 2,000,000 1,000,000 Electrochemical >10 +6 1 5 20,000 Capacitor (EC) 10 +2 >10 +3 Li-ion Battery 100 1,000 Lead Acid 10 +4 >10 +2 30 100 Battery JME Slide 38

  18. Energy Storage Technology Comparison Charge/ Specific STORAGE Cycle Life COST discharge Energy TECHNOLOGY (80% DOD) ($/kWh) time (s) (Wh/kg) 2,000,000 Electrolytic 10 -4 >10 +10 0.05 1,000,000 Capacitor Electrochemical >10 +6 1 5 20,000 Capacitor (EC) 10 +2 >10 +3 Li-ion Battery 100 1,000 Lead Acid 10 +4 >10 +2 30 100 Battery JME Slide 39

  19. Energy Storage Technology Comparison Charge/ Specific STORAGE Cycle Life COST discharge Energy TECHNOLOGY (80% DOD) ($/kWh) time (s) (Wh/kg) Electrostatic 10 -9 >10 +15 0.001 2,000,000 Capacitor Electrolytic 10 -4 >10 +10 0.05 1,000,000 Capacitor Electrochemical >10 +6 1 5 20,000 Capacitor (EC) 10 +2 >10 +3 Li-ion Battery 100 1,000 Lead Acid 10 +4 >10 +2 30 100 Battery JME Slide 40

  20. Energy Storage Technology Comparison Charge/ Specific STORAGE Cycle Life COST discharge Energy TECHNOLOGY (80% DOD) ($/kWh) time (s) (Wh/kg) Electrostatic 10 -9 >10 +15 0.001 2,000,000 Capacitor Electrolytic 10 -4 >10 +10 0.05 1,000,000 Capacitor Electrochemical >10 +6 1 5 20,000 Capacitor (EC) 10 +2 >10 +3 Li-ion Battery 100 1,000 Lead Acid 10 +4 >10 +2 30 100 Battery JME Slide 41

  21. Capacitor--Battery Charging Comparison 3000 F capacitor and 12 Ah Li-ion battery Regenerative Energy Measurement JME Slide 42

  22. Capacitor--Battery Charging Comparison 1000 1000 3000 F capacitor and 12 Ah Li-ion battery battery battery Specific Energy (kJ/kg) Specific Energy (kJ/kg) 100 100 15 times Regenerative Energy Measurement captured captured capacitor capacitor 10 10 stored stored Equal 1 1 1 1 10 10 100 100 1000 1000 10000 10000 Charging time (s) Charging time (s) 10 10 0 0 capacitor capacitor 80 80 battery battery Efficiency (%) Efficiency (%) 60 60 40 40 20 20 0 0 1 1 10 10 100 100 1000 1000 10000 10000 Tim Tim e(s) e(s) Charging time (s) JME Slide 43

  23. Capacitor--Battery Charging Comparison 1000 1000 3000 F capacitor and 12 Ah Li-ion battery battery battery Specific Energy (kJ/kg) Specific Energy (kJ/kg) 100 100 15 times Regenerative Energy Measurement captured captured capacitor capacitor 10 10 stored stored Equal 1 1 1 1 10 10 100 100 1000 1000 10000 10000 Charging time (s) Charging time (s) 10 10 0 0 capacitor capacitor 80 80 battery battery Efficiency (%) Efficiency (%) 60 60 40 40 20 20 0 0 1 1 10 10 100 100 1000 1000 10000 10000 Tim Tim e(s) e(s) Charging time (s) JME Slide 44

  24. EC Summary • Extraordinarily high specific capacitance ~100 F/g • High energy compared with conventional capacitors • Low unit-cell voltage, ~1 to 3 V • Response time typically ~1 s • Expensive on an energy basis (compared with batteries) • Powerful compared with batteries, especially during charge • Unlimited cycle life in most application JME Slide 45

  25. 70 kJ of Stored Energy JME Slide 46

  26. Outline - Electrochemical capacitor (EC) energy storage introduction - Energy storage technology comparisons - EC energy-conservation applications - Energy-sector applications of ECs - Storage system economic analysis - Summary JME Slide 47

  27. : E = ½ MV 2 Energy of Motion 2000 1500 Kinetic Energy (kJ) 1000 500 0 m/s 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 mph Velocity JME Slide 48

  28. First Large Capacitor Hybrid Vehicle (1997) 20 F, 400 V system • • ~1.6 MJ stored energy (440 Wh) NASA Report TM-113176 JME Slide 49

  29. Battery Problems Listed: • Inadequate life • Limited current (discharge and charge) • Inaccurate measurement of SOC • Safety issues First Large Capacitor Hybrid Vehicle (1997) 20 F, 400 V system • • ~1.6 MJ stored energy (440 Wh) NASA Report TM-113176 JME Slide 50

  30. NASA Hybrid Gas-Electric Transit Bus with EC Storage 46 second Repeating Power Profile 25 F capacitor, series resistance ~0.04 ohm (RC~1 s) Power (kW) Capacitor Brake Accelerate Voltage (V) Capacitor JME Slide 51

  31. Crosspoint Kinetics Next Generation Electric Hybrid System with EC Storage JME Slide 52

  32. Subway Train with Capacitor Storage JME Slide 53

  33. Komatsu PC200-8 Hybrid Excavator with EC Storage • Electric motor turret rotation • Capacitor energy storage • Regenerative turret braking JME Slide 54

  34. Komatsu PC200-8 Hybrid Excavator with EC Storage • Electric motor turret rotation • Capacitor energy storage • Regenerative turret braking • Introduced 2008 • Typically yields >30% fuel savings • Now selling 3 rd generation model • World-wide sales >2500 units JME Slide 55

  35. Caterpillar 6120B H FS Hybrid Mining Shovel •1400 Tons • Bucket volume 46 to 65 m 3 (size depends on material density) • IC engine power 4500 hp (3360 kW) • Machine power 8,000 hp (using IC engine + energy storage) • 48 MJ capacitor energy storage (4700 cells each rated at 3000 F, 2.7 V) JME Slide 56

  36. Caterpillar 6120B H FS Hybrid Mining Shovel •1400 Tons • Bucket volume 46 to 65 m 3 (size depends on material density) • IC engine power 4500 hp (3360 kW) • Machine power 8,000 hp (using IC engine + energy storage) • 48 MJ capacitor energy storage (4700 cells each rated at 3000 F, 2.7 V) • Regen energy capture during swing deceleration and boom-down movement • ~25% fuel savings achieved over non-hybrid version JME Slide 57

  37. Energy of Location : E = MgH 2000 1500 Potential Energy (kJ) 1000 500 0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 Height (m) JME Slide 58

  38. Container Ship at Port Up to 7,600 40-ft containers Container mass up to 40 MT Ship load up to 157,000 MT Load can fill 35 100-car trains JME Slide 59

  39. Hybrid Rubber Tired Gantry Crane with EC Storage 7 MJ Capacitor--Efficient Regenerative Energy Capture ~40 % Fuel Saving / Significant Emission Reduction Capacitor storage JME Source: T. Furukawa, NCC Slide 60

  40. Hybrid Rubber Tired Gantry Crane with EC Storage RESULTS JME Source: T. Furukawa, NCC Slide 61

  41. Outline - Electrochemical capacitor (EC) energy storage introduction - Energy storage technology comparisons - EC energy-conservation applications - Energy-sector applications of ECs - Storage system economics - Summary JME Slide 62

  42. ECs for Wind Turbine Emergency Pitch Control JME Slide 63

  43. ECs for Wind Turbine Emergency Pitch Control Attractive EC features • High reliability • Long operational-life • Maintenance-free • Low-temperature operation • High power performance • Safe • High cycle-life JME Slide 64

  44. EC Voltage Compensation System JME Slide 65

  45. EC Voltage Compensation System JME Slide 66

  46. EC Voltage Compensation System Attractive EC features • High reliability • High power performance • Safe • Long operational-life • High cycle-life JME Slide 67

  47. ECs for Solar Thermal Electricity Generation Ivanpah, California, USA • completed in 2013 by Brightsource • 377 MW output • three 137-meter-tall towers • 300,000 mirrors track the sun all day JME Slide 68

  48. ECs for Solar Thermal Electricity Generation Ivanpah, California, USA • completed in 2013 by Brightsource • 377 MW output • three 137-meter-tall towers • 300,000 mirrors track the sun all day • each mirror requires electrical power • EC stored energy used for mirror control JME Slide 69

  49. Renewable Energy Generation/Demand Exampl e Blue—wind power 30 days of data Gold—solar power JME April 2010 Red—power demand Bonneville Power Admin. (Black lines—averages) Slide 70

  50. JME Slide 71

  51. Time Shifting—Day/Night Storage 24 hours NO STORAGE JME Slide 72

  52. Time Shifting—Day/Night Storage 24 hours 24 hours NO STORAGE WITH STORAGE JME Slide 73

  53. Time Shifting—Day/Night Storage 24 hours 24 hours NO STORAGE WITH STORAGE 20 years at 1 cycle per day, five days per week requires ~5000 cycles JME Slide 74

  54. Day-Night Energy Storage Systems • Used with the electric power grid JME Slide 75

  55. Day-Night Energy Storage Systems • Used with the electric power grid • Mass and volume of storage--low direct importance (stationary) JME Slide 76

  56. Day-Night Energy Storage Systems • Used with the electric power grid • Mass and volume of storage--low direct importance (stationary) • Often designed to operate at low rate (~5 h charge/discharge) JME Slide 77

  57. Day-Night Energy Storage Systems • Used with the electric power grid • Mass and volume of storage--low direct importance (stationary) • Often designed to operate at low rate (~5 h charge/discharge) • Typically need to operate for 15 to 20 years JME Slide 78

  58. Day-Night Energy Storage Systems • Used with the electric power grid • Mass and volume of storage--low direct importance (stationary) • Often designed to operate at low rate (~5 h charge/discharge) • Typically need to operate for 15 to 20 years • Must compete with new-power generation JME Slide 79

  59. Day-Night Energy Storage Systems • Used with the electric power grid • Mass and volume of storage--low direct importance (stationary) • Often designed to operate at low rate (~5 h charge/discharge) • Typically need to operate for 15 to 20 years • Must compete with new-power generation • Important metric—cost of storing energy ($/kWh) JME Slide 80

  60. Day-Night Energy Storage Systems • Used with the electric power grid • Mass and volume of storage--low direct importance (stationary) • Often designed to operate at low rate (~5 h charge/discharge) • Typically need to operate for 15 to 20 years • Must compete with new-power generation • Important metric—cost of storing energy ($/kWh) World Energy Storage World Total: 126,000 MW (2010) World Total: 126,000 MW (2010) 2010 JME Source- California Energy Storage Alliance. “Energy Storage: Bolstering California’s Economy with AB 2514” page 3. Source- California Energy Storage Alliance. “Energy Storage: Bolstering California’s Economy with AB 2514” page 3. Source- California Energy Storage Alliance. “Energy Storage: Bolstering California’s Economy with AB 2514” page 3. Slide 81

  61. Pumped Hydroelectric Storage Schematic JME Slide 82

  62. Pumped Hydroelectric Energy Storage JME Source: Wikipedia accessed 1-11-2018 Slide 83

  63. Tumut 3 Power Station 1 st pumped hydroelectric station in New South Wales JME Slide 84

  64. ENERGY STORAGE COMPONENTS Battery Capacitor Secondary Primary electrostatic (rechargeable) electrolytic electrochemical Lead Li ion NiCd NMH acid symmetric asymmetric Aqueous Aqueous Organic Organic electrolyte electrolyte electrolyte electrolyte Original EC Lithium-ion Most popular today capacitor “LIC” Potential for bulk storage JME Slide 85

  65. ENERGY STORAGE COMPONENTS Battery Capacitor Secondary Primary electrostatic (rechargeable) electrolytic electrochemical Lead Li ion NiCd NMH acid asymmetric Aqueous electrolyte Potential for bulk storage JME Slide 86

  66. Typical EC Cell Cross-section SYMMETRIC EC Both electrodes same materials (usually activated carbon) and each about same thickness JME Slide 87

  67. Typical EC Cell Cross-section SYMMETRIC EC Both electrodes same materials (usually activated carbon) and each about same thickness ASYMMETRIC EC Positive and negative electrodes are different materials with capacity of one electrode much greater than other JME Slide 88

  68. Asymmetric Electrochemical Capacitors Double layer Double layer Double layer Faradaic  _  _ _ _ + + + + + electrolyte electrolyte electrolyte + electrolyte + + - - + Q Q + Symmetric design Asymmetric design JME Slide 89

  69. Asymmetric Electrochemical Capacitors Double layer Double layer Double layer Faradaic  _  _ _ _ + + + + + electrolyte electrolyte electrolyte + electrolyte + + - - + Q Q + Symmetric design Asymmetric design JME Slide 90

  70. Asymmetric Electrochemical Capacitors Double layer Double layer Double layer Faradaic  _  _ _ _ + + + + + electrolyte electrolyte electrolyte + electrolyte + + - - + Q Q + Symmetric design Asymmetric design Asymmetric ECs • Lower cost than symmetric design • Asymmetry ratio establishes cycle life • Low embedded energy • Safe--locate anywhere (e.g. building basement) • Size scalable • Low projected energy storage costs (<$0.07/kWh) JME Slide 91

  71. Asymmetric Electrochemical Capacitor JME Slide 92

  72. Early Capacitor Powered Electric Bus and Truck ~1995 Gazel Truck ~1993 ELTON Bus 30 MJ ELTON NiOOH/KOH/C EC, 70 km/hr 30 MJ, 190 V, NiOOH/KOH/C storage system 30 km range, 15 minute charge 15 km range, 25 km/hr, 15 minute charge factory to warehouse operation circle route operation in large Moscow park JME Slide 93

  73. Characteristics of Asymmetric ECs (aqueous electrolyte) + Tolerant to over-voltage conditions + Voltage self-balance in series strings + Electrode drying unnecessary + Low-cost packaging possible since water not contaminant + Very low self-discharge rate is possible + High electrolyte salt concentration possible JME Slide 94

  74. Characteristics of Asymmetric ECs (aqueous electrolyte) + Tolerant to over-voltage conditions + Voltage self-balance in series strings + Electrode drying unnecessary + Low-cost packaging possible since water not contaminant + Very low self-discharge rate is possible + High electrolyte salt concentration possible - Longer response times (lower power) - Cycle life lower than symmetric EC—set by asymmetry ratio - Cannot be discharged to and held at 0 V JME Slide 95

  75. ELTON Pb/C Asymmetric Electrochemical Capacitor for the Electric Grid Charge Charge Charge  PbSO 4 + 2H 2 O ? PbO 2 + H 2 SO 4 + PbSO 4 + 2H 2 O ? PbO 2 + H 2 SO 4 + PbSO 4 + 2H 2 O ? PbO 2 + H 2 SO 4 + 2H + + 2e - 2H + + 2e - 2H + + 2e - Discharge Discharge Discharge C neg up to 1600 F/g due to the small size of H + and its low-level C neg up to 1600 F/g due to the small size of H + and its low-level C neg up to 1600 F/g due to the small size of H + and its low-level interaction with activated carbon structure interaction with activated carbon structure interaction with activated carbon structure JME <$0.10/kWh projected storage cost Slide 96

  76. ELTON Pb/C Asymmetric Electrochemical Capacitor for the Electric Grid Sample #1 Sample #1 Sample #1 Sample #2 Sample #2 Sample #2 Pilot prototype Pilot prototype ELTON HES-340F1 ELTON HES-340F1 C/5 discharge, 25 o C, 100% DOD Conditions: full cell test, ambient temperature (+25 o C), 100% DOD. Conditions: full cell test, ambient temperature (+25 o C), 100% DOD. JME Slide 97

  77. Fill Decommissioned Power Plants with Capacitors JME Slide 98

  78. Fill Decommissioned Power Plants with Capacitors Note: • Empty building • Transmission switchyards often intact • Extends life of capital investment • Promotes removal of inefficient plants • Permitting should not be difficult JME Slide 99

  79. Fill Decommissioned Power Plants with Capacitors Note: • Empty building • Transmission switchyards often intact • Extends life of capital investment • Promotes removal of inefficient plants • Permitting should not be difficult 50m x 100m x 20m = 100,000 m 3 JME Slide 100

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