CHAPT E R 16: ACADE MI C L ABORAT ORI E S AND T HE RE PRODUCT I ON OF PROPRI E T ARY SCI E NCE : MODE L I NG ORGANI ZAT I ONAL RUL E S T HROUGH AUT OCAT AL YT I C NE T WORK S* Je a nne tte A. Co lyva s Spiro Ma ro ulis *Suppo rt fo r this pro je c t c a me fro m the No rthwe ste rn Unive rsity Re se a rc h Gra nts Co mmitte e , the Na tio na l Sc ie nc e F o unda tio n (# 0849036), a nd the Ce nte r fo r Co nne c te d L e a rning a nd Co mpute r- Ba se d Mo de ling .
I NT RODUCT I ON T he intro duc tio n to this vo lume e mpha size s the o rig ins a nd e me rg e nc e o f ne w fo rms a s a c o lle c tive b lind spo t in the so c ia l sc ie nc e s. F e w a na lysis c a pture the re la tio nship a mo ng a ll thre e fe a ture s o f so c ia l a nd e c o no mic life —the o rig in o f ne w pra c tic e s, the ir e me rg e nc e a s b ro a de r se lf-re pro duc ing struc ture s, a nd the fo rm tha t the y ta ke a s a re sult o f this pro c e ss. Our a ppro a c h to this q ue stio n e xa mine s ho w dispa ra te e le me nts o f the so c ia l o rg a niza tio n o f a c a de mic sc ie nc e we re a sse mb le d, tra nspo se d, a nd re c o mb ine d to de fine a ne w re g ime o f pub lic a nd pro prie ta ry sc ie nc e . We c o mb ine de ta ile d a rc hiva l a na lysis with c o mputa tio na l a g e nt-b a se d mo de ling to e xa mine the intro duc tio n a nd a do ptio n o f pro prie ta ry sc ie nc e in the a c a de my, spe c ific a lly a s a se t o f ro utine s tha t sha pe d the pro duc tio n a nd disc lo sure o f unive rsity-b a se d re se a rc h. We e mpha size the tra nsfo rma tive a spe c t o f se lf-re info rc ing pro c e sse s in re c a sting ne two rks, sha ping o rg a niza tio na l ro utine s, a nd po te ntia lly g uiding sc ie nc e .
PROPRI E T ARY SCI E NCE I N T HE ACADE MY One o f the mo st sa lie nt tra nsfo rma tio ns tha t ha s ta ke n pla c e in re c e nt de c a de s is the intro duc tio n a nd spre a d o f c o mme rc ia l pra c tic e s in the a c a de my, pa rtic ula rly in the fo rm o f pa te nting . T e c hno lo g y tra nsfe r wa s initia lly unfa milia r to unive rsitie s a nd sc ie ntists, b ut e ve ntua lly b e c a me le g itima te a nd e xpe c te d. Ma ny a rg ue tha t this c ha ng e re fle c ts the mixing o f o nc e dispa ra te do ma ins o f pub lic (unive rsity) a nd pro prie ta ry (industry) sc ie nc e T he na ture o f the g o a ls a c c e pte d a s le g itima te F e a ture s o f the re wa rd syste m no rms o f disc lo sure T he a do ptio n o f pa te nting b y a c a de mic sc ie ntists, initia lly in the 1970’ s a nd in g re a te r fo rc e in the 1990’ s, re fle c te d a c o ntra sting no rm o f disc lo sure It c o nfe rre d the rig ht to e xc lud e o the rs fro m using a re se a rc h find ing a nd It pe rmitte d sc ie ntists a nd unive rsitie s to ma ke mo ne y fro m tho se find ing s.
F ro m o ur pe rspe c tive , unde rsta nding this tra nsfo rma tio n re q uire s situa ting pra c tic e s in the so c ia l a nd o rg a niza tio na l syste m o f a c a de mic sc ie nc e , a nd re c o g nizing ho w the fe a ture s tha t g ive rise to a n institutio n c a n b e diffe re nt tha n tho se tha t re info rc e it o nc e in pla c e .
OUR ANAL YSI S Our a im is to illumina te the fe e db a c k dyna mic s o f c ro ssing b o unda rie s a nd e me rg e nt institutio na l c ha ng e . As the “a mphib io us” life sc ie ntists de sc rib e d in pre vio us c ha pte rs c a me into c o nta c t with the wo rld o f c o mme rc e , ho w did the ir e xpe rie nc e s re ve rb e ra te into the c o nse rva tive ha lls o f a c a de mia ? Ho w we re c o mme rc ia l pra c tic e s, like pa te nting a do pte d, a nd in wha t fo rm? We e xpla in this pro c e ss thro ug h the re c o mb ina tio n o f me a ning s a nd pra c tic e s within the e xisting so c ia l struc ture o f sc ie nc e . We a lso de mo nstra te ho w pa te nting pra c tic e s o rig ina te d in la b s, ra the r tha n thro ug h po lic y inc e ntive s o r re g ula tive c o ntro ls. We de mo nstra te ho w sc ie ntists e ffo rts to ma inta in a uto no my a nd e xpa nd the re a c h o f re a c h o f o ne ’ s re se a rc h pro g ra m fue le d c ha ng e , de spite the fa c t tha t the se a c tio ns we re pa rt o f c o nc e rte d strug g le s to pre se rve the a c a de mic syste m. Our a na lysis sho ws tha t e ffo rts to o pe ra te within the so c ia l struc ture o f sc ie nc e g e ne ra te d the me c ha nisms tha t tra nsfo rme d it.
E ME RGE NCE E me rg e nc e is a b o tto m up pro c e ss a s re pe a te d so c ia l inte ra c tio ns g ive rise to vo c a b ula rie s o f mo tive s tha t c o me to de fine wha t is sta nda rd a nd a ppro pria te . Ne w fo rms a re b uilt b y pa rtic ipa nts situa te d in the c ultura l ro utine s o f the ir pa st Oppo rtunitie s a nd c o nstra ints, b o th ne w a nd o ld, ma ke so me pa rtic ipa nts re c e ptive to a lte rna tive s fro m o the r do ma ins, whic h re ma in invisib le to o the rs. Whe n tra nspo sitio n ha ppe ns, ne w pra c tic e s a re a sse mb le d se le c tive ly ra the r tha n a do pte d who le sa le , a nd a s the y b e c o me inte g ra te d into the so c ia l o rde r, the se pra c tic e s c a n a lso a lte r the do ma in in whic h the y a re tra nspo se d. E me rg e nc e is b uilt o n sc a ffo lding o f ne two rks tha t tra nsfo rm ra the r tha n tra nsmit.
DAT A AND ME T HODS Arc hive s ABM* Administra tive a nd inve ntio n Adva nta g e o f c la rity in re c o rds o f Sta nfo rd Unive rsity fo rc ing a pre c ise tra nsla tio n o f q ua lita tive finding s into F o c us o n life sc ie nc e inve ntio n “runna b le ” c o de disc lo sure s 1968-1982 42 inve ntio ns linke d to a b a sic life sc ie nc e de pa rtme nt, Pro viding a pla tfo rm to c la ssifie d b y la b , induc tive ly e xplo re c o unte rfa c tua ls tha t e xa mine d po ints o f inte rse c tio n a re o the rwise impo ssib le to b e twe e n c o mme rc e & inve stig a te a c a de mia Process Begin with core question about the emergence of proprietary science Derive insights from the archives Translate insights to ABM Conduct controlled tests of mechanisms that can explain our outcome * ABM developed using NetLogo, Wilensky 1999.
E XAMPL E OF CODI NG SCHE ME F OR I NVE NT I ON DI SCL OSURE S BY L AB Organizational and Legal Dimensions Boundaries Revenues & Invention Inventor btwn. Science Rewards Laboratories and Research Agendas & Business *What kinds of *Who was an *How revenues *The degree/form of science constituted inventor would be disbursed engagement in tech an invention transfer process *e.g. patent *e.g. list technicians *e.g. share with co- *e.g. "hands-on" or Practices anything only, include main authors, donate, "hands-off" in all commercializeable, co-authors, or PI's turn over to the lab aspects, or specific Lab Model: patent only devices only partitions not basic research *The rationales, *The rationales, *The rationales *The rationales premises or premises or provided for provided for the definitions definitions particular degree or form of Meanings articulated as articulated as arrangements engagement in inventions inventors business or why some boundaries while not others
CORRE SPONDE NCE BE T WE E N RE SE ARCH AND T HE AGE NT -BASE D MODE L Theoretical and Empirical Claims Operationalization in the Model Characterizing the Knowledge Production Process • Science is based on cumulative production • Scientific production routine : labs are comprised of knowledge & relies on distributed skills. of skills that transform scientific products. • Lab success relies on others using the • Lab survival depends on having skills that are science they produce. replicated when knowledge advanced to another lab. • Labs reproduced their practices by • Each lab is given a reproduction routine where training doctoral graduates. new labs are "hatched" with some random mutation. Characterizing Forms of Disclosure • Commerce developed in labs, linking • Knowledge disclosure routine activated by the opportunities to change & to produce knowledge production process. • Patenting was contingent, depended on • Labs have different patenting thresholds & findings, & could change at each disclosure. products have different science value ( 1-100). Characterizing the Adaptation of Labs • Scientists learned from others patenting • Participatory adaptation routine : labs update PT downstream developments of their work. as weighted avr. of their's & successful colleagues'. • Premptive adaptation routine : labs update PT • Scientists reacted to patenting among peers. based on the existence of more liberal colleagues.
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