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INTRODUCTION TO MASS COMMUNICATION

MAC (114) DEPARTMENT OF MASS COMMUNICATION

• Mr. Linus M. Ngantem (Lecturer)

INTRODUCTION Communication is essential in every area of our lives as individuals and as groups. The desire to communicate is innate in man and this is exhibited even by babies, who in their own way express their needs and feelings by crying, laughing, groaning, etc. Man has diverse needs and the only way through which these needs can be expressed and fulfilled is through communication. We communicate to share information, to persuade, to influence relationships and to satisfy several other needs. In the words of Hybels and Weaver (1992),

• To live is to communicate.
• To communicate effectively is to enjoy life more fully.

Ella and Onwochei (2005) observed that as social beings we interact with our kind in order to satisfy our various needs. This desire explains why we engage in one form of communication or another almost all the time.

Communication is the ‘‘life wire’’ of every individual and

• rganization’s existence. No man can survive the various

experiences of this life without any form of communication.

The need to be understood by the people we interact with as students, teachers, children, parents, friends and associate is a major concern today in schools, homes and organizations. Many relationships have been cut short as a result of misunderstanding caused by ineffective communication of intended meaning. Indeed, the truth remains that people cannot interact without some form of communication. We will succeed in our relationships and interactions with others if we fully grasp the fact that, the essence of communication, the goal, the ultimate aim of every exchange is the transfer of meaning. Communication is effective when the intended meaning of the speaker is understood by the listener.

It is hoped that the simple approach to communication generally, will help students and other readers communicate effectively as they interact on a daily basis.

Week 1: What is Communication?

Communication is from a Latin word- COMMUNIS, which means common or shared understanding.

Communication therefore is a purposeful effort to establish commonness between a source and receiver (Schramn 1965). Whatever is being shared could be associated with knowledge, experience, thought, ideas, suggestion, opinions, feelings etc. We will define communication here as the process of exchanging or sharing information, ideas and feeling between the sender and the

• receiver. Communication is very central to all human activities; this is

because everything we do and do not, communicate. Man’s interaction with other human beings is a result of communication. Communication is the key around which human life revolves. Communication is a common phenomenon that cuts across the daily activities of human being. Obilade (1989) defines communication as a process that involves the transmission of message from a sender to the receiver.

Orewere (2006) defines communication as the process of sending (transmitting) and receiving messages between individuals, among a group of people in a place or locality or between people in a wider society.

He added that a message is the actual physical product of the Sender/Source/Encoder, e.g speech, writing, painting, picture, movement of the arms in a gesture. Several communication scholars

such as Soola (2000), Ode (1999) and Ugboajah (2001) pointed out that Communication is the process by which any person or a group shares and impacts, information with/to another person(or group) so that both people(or groups) clearly understand one another (Soola 2000). Not just giving of information, it is the giving of understandable information and receiving and therefore, the transferring of a message to another party so that it can be understood and acted upon (Ode 1999). That communication is the process which involves all acts of transmitting messages to channels which link people to the languages and symbolic codes which are used to transmit such messages.

It is also the means by which such messages are received and stored. It includes the rules, customs and conventions which define and regulate human relationships and events (Ugboajah 2001). In addition, Communication is the transmission of a message from a source to a receiver or the process of creating shared meaning. Communication is also innate – every man is born with the ability, from childhood, we learn to communicate by crying, smiling, kicking etc. Communication is dynamic,

• ngoing

and ever changing. Communication is made up of activities of interrelated elements which continue to function in the communication process. The fact is that the word communication is encompassing, ambiguous and pervasive. These three words capture the universal nature of communication and make everyone think they know something about communication. Similarly, communication started with the simplest vocal and gestural signals rooted in their physical structure. People then developed a range

• f non-verbal means of communication for conveying messages, such

as music, dance, drum message, signal fires, drawings, paintings, tying

• f bush leaves etc. The development of language rendered human

communication powerful and gave mankind his pre-eminent position in the animal world (Orewere, 2006).

FUNCTIONS OF COMMUNICATION

Communication performs diverse kinds of functions. We will look at the following functions:

• a. Social Interaction: Human interaction is possible because we can
• communicate. We relate with friends, parents, colleagues, etc because

we share codes that make us understand each other. Without

communication this will not be possible.

• b. Business and Trade: Communication provides opportunity to transact

business and engage in trade. We are able to make known what we are offering for sales and what we want to buy. We also negotiate the prices, mode of delivery etc. through communication

• c. Exchange of Ideas and Spread of Knowledge: We express freely our ideas,
• pinions and feelings on issues affecting us. We also share knowledge as we

engage in discussion and write books. In classroom situation, a teacher is able to impart knowledge into students through communication.

• d. Social-Political Development: Development is made possible through
• communication. Communication helps to mobilise people to work together for

their social and political development.

• e. Social-Cultural Integration: Communication enables exchange of culture

and values. Through music, interaction in communities, we are able to learn

• ne another’s cultures and blend for harmonious co-habitation.

Purpose of Communication

Communication serves five major purposes: to inform, to express feelings, to imagine, to influence, and to meet social expectations. Each of these purposes is reflected in a form of communication. From the fore-going, we can

conclude here that, communication can serve a number of different functions like information, education, entertainment, persuasion, and so on. PROCESS OF COMMUNICATION Communication as a process is dynamic, recursive, on-going and continuous. It includes the means by which messages are received and stored as the rules, customs, beliefs, and conventions which define and regulate human relationship and events. The process of communication is a cyclic one as it begins with the sender and ends with the sender in the form of feedback. Sambe (2005) pointed out that the communication process involves an action, reaction and interaction. a. Stimulation: This is the point at which the source or sender sees the need to

• communicate. He receives stimulus that triggers him to communicate.
• b. Encoding: here the source processes the message he want to communicate. For

instance, feelings, thoughts opinion, ideas etc. The sender puts the message into a series of symbols, pictures or words which will be communicated to the intended

• receiver. Encoding is an important step in the communication process as wrong and

inappropriate encoding may defeat the true intent of the communication process.

• c. Transmission: in this process of communication, the message

is passed across to the receiver through a chosen medium or

• channel. E.g radio, television, newspaper or magazines etc.
• d. Reception: in this communication process, the receiver gets

the message sent from the source/sender/originator

• r

communicator.

• e. Decoding: this is a communication process where the message

is processed, dissected, understood and interpreted by the receiver in form of feedback. Decoding refers to interpreting

• r converting the sent message into intelligible language. It

simply means comprehending the message. The receiver after receiving the message interprets it and tries to understand it in the best possible manner.

ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION

There are seven elements involved in the communication process.

• a. Stimulus: this refers to the need or desire that triggers off any form of
• communication. It motivates, stimulates or moves an intending or prospective

sender into the urge to relax or transmit a message.

• b. Sender/Source: this refers to the originator, encoder, initiator, or communicator that

packages or arranges the message in such a way that it can be communicated.

• c. Message: this concerns the thoughts, feelings, ideas, opinion or needs which the

source transmits after he has received the message to be effectively shared or transmitted.

• d. Medium/Channel: this is concern with the form or method employed by the sender of the

message to get to the receiver or destination. Channel on the other hand, refers to the pathway, route, or conduit through which messages travels between the source and the receiver. For instance, the case of radio, television, newspaper, internet etc. Channel provides a link that enables the sender and the receiver to communicate. The message may be oral or written and it may be transmitted through a memorandum, a computer, telephone, cell phone, apps or televisions

• e. Receiver: This is the decoder, for others it is the destination of the message
• r simply the audience to whom the message is sent. He/she is the target
• audience. Communication must be receiver-centred. It is destination.
• f. Feedback: this refers to the response or reaction to the message sent to the
• decoder. It confirms that communication is well received, understood or

comprehended.

• g. Noise: this refers to interference that keeps a message from being
• understood. It is a viable or potent barrier to effective communication. It

also refers to obstacle or distortion noticeable in the communication process. Types of Noise

• Physical Noise: this comes from the environment in which we live. E.g

side-talks, conversation, meetings etc.

• Psychological Noise: result from mental state of the person, depression,

emotional stress, disability participating in the communication process.

• Physiological Noise: comes from interference or distortion from the body

in form of discomfort, feelings of hunger, tiredness etc.

• Linguistic Noise: result from the senders’ inability to communicate
• accurately. It may be a grammatical noise manifested in form of defects in

the rules of grammar of a language, and faulty sentence structure.

WEEK 2: FORMS OF COMMUNICATION

• 1. Verbal Communication

Verbal communication refers to the form of communication in which message is transmitted verbally; communication is done by word of mouth and a piece

• f writing. The aim of every communication is to have people understand what

we are trying to convey.

In verbal communication remember the acronym KISS (keep it short and simple). Verbal communication is further divided in to two: Oral and Written communication. a. Oral (Speech) Communication: this refers to the means of communication done by word of mouth. In oral communication, Spoken words are used. It includes face-to-face conversations, speech, telephone conversation, video, radio, television, voice over

• internet. Here, communication is influence by pitch, volume, speed and clarity of

speaking. Advantages of Oral Communication

• i. It creates and sustains warm, interpersonal relationships.
• ii. It combines sight and sound, thus enabling participants to benefit from both verbal

and non-verbal stimulus.

• iii. It can satisfy man’s needs and desires (wants) more quickly than writing or gestures.
• iv. It allows for instantaneous exchange of ideas, information, opinions, feelings and

attitudes.

• v. It brings immediate feedback

Disadvantages of Oral Communication

• i. There is possibility of distortion of meaning.
• ii. It can easily be denied.
• iii. It has little weight as contractual evidence.
• iv. It is usually not admissible in evidence in the law court.
• v. It lacks permanence
• b. Written Communication: refers to communication by means of written symbols (either

printed or handwritten). In written communication, written signs or symbols are used to

• communicate. A written message may be printed or hand written. In written

communication message can be transmitted via email, letter, report, memo etc. Advantages of Written Communication

• a. It provides opportunities for record keeping.
• b. It is amenable to conveying complex messages, information, and ideals as well as

explaining difficult process.

• c. It can be reproduced through various reprographic processes and dispatched to widely

scattered receivers.

• d. It provides avenues, through which oral transaction can be clarified, analysed and

confirmed.

• Disadvantages of Written Communication
• a. It lacks the warmth of interpersonal relationships.
• b. It may be expensive especially when it requires being dispatched to scattered receivers.
• c. It delays feedback.
• d. It delays feedback

• II. Non-Verbal Communication

Non-verbal communication is any information that is communicated without using

• words. Nonverbal communication is the sending or receiving of wordless messages.

We can say that communication without oral or written means, such as gesture, body language, posture, tone of voice or facial expressions, is called non-verbal

• communication. Nonverbal communication is all about the body language of the

speaker.

Types of Non-verbal Communication

• Vocalic (Paralanguage)
• This deals with the extra-linguistic aspects of communication. It concerns voice

rather than words. E.g. yawning to indicate tiredness or boredom; belching after food or drink to show one has eaten to his fill. Paralanguage also include such vocal characteristics as rate (speed of speaking), pitch (highness or lowness of tone), volume (loudness) and quality (pleasing or unpleasant sound). Any or all of these added to words, modify meaning.

• Oculesics (Eye Language)
• Messages are conveyed through the eyes by way of contact, blinks, eye

movement and pupil dilation. The eye is used to:

• a. Give the “green light” or declare the communication channel open.
• b. Seek and provide reaction in form of feedback
• c. Signal the intention to be involved or included in a discussion.
• d. Gaze at, or probe into, and provoke anxiety in others

• c. Kinesics (Body Language)
• a. Emblems are body movements that directly translate into words e.g. holding your

fingers to show how many of something you want.

• b. Illustrators: they accent, emphasise or reinforce words e.g. pointing down the road

with finger when giving direction to someone.

• c. Regulators: control the back-and-forth flow of speaking and listening. e.g.

when a teacher points at the student who should speak next in the class.

• d. Displays of feelings: show through facial expressions and body

movements, how intensely a person is feeling. Levels at which Communication Occurs

• 3. Intra-Personal Communication: refers to the kind of communication

that occurs within an individual. It involves thoughts, feelings, and the way an individual look at oneself. Because intra-personal communication is centred in the self, you are the only sender-receiver. The message is made up of your thoughts and feelings. The channel is your brain, which processes what you are thinking and feeling. There is feedback in the sense that you talk to yourself, or discard certain ideas and replace them with

• thers.

• 4. Inter-Personal Communication: This kind of communication occurs mostly between

two people, though it may include more than two. Because interpersonal communication is between two (or a few) people, it offers the greatest opportunity for

• feedback. Messages consist of verbal and non-verbal symbols.

Few participants are involved and are close to each other. The main attribute of inter-personal communication is the face-to-face type

• f

interaction. Interpersonal communication differs from other forms of communication in that there are few participants involved, the interactants are in close physical proximity to each other, there are many sensory channels used, and feedback is immediate.

• Types of Interpersonal Communication
• Interpersonal communication has three major types. They are:
• 1. Dyadic communication,
• 2. Public speaking, and
• 3. Small-group communication
• Communication Dyadic
• Dyadic communication is simply a method of communication that only

involves two people such as a telephone conversation or even a set of letters sent to and received from a pen pal. In this communication process, the sender can immediately receive and evaluate feedback from the receiver.

• 5. Group Communication: this kind of communication occurs when a small number
• f people meet to solve a problem. The group must be small enough so that each

member in the group has a chance to interact with all of the other members. Example: teacher and students, family meetings, village meeting etc.

• 6. Public Communication: this refers to a situation where a message is

directed to a large audience assembled together on a spot. Here, one person is speaking to a large number of people using public address system. Example: NUJ, NLC etc. The audience is bigger and the setting is formal. What differentiates public communication from group communication is the medium. A situation where there is application of public address system, newsletters, circulars etc. to pass across information to a large number of people. 7. Intercultural/Cross-Cultural Communication: this refers to a situation where people from different cultures, differences in language, values, gestures etc interact. It concerns with communication across different cultures and social groups or how cultures affects communication for the purpose of interaction.

• 8. Traditional Communication: this serves the purpose of delivering a

concise message to a small group of people; usually those people who live in towns and small communities.

• 9. International Communication: this refers to the form of communication that takes

place across national frontiers or national boundaries or from one country to another. The purpose of international communication is for two or more countries coming together to interact and solve certain issues affecting member nations or for bilateral relation or business.

International communication arose because of the need to maintain international friendship and relations as well as to understand and keep abreast of happenings around the world. This is one of the core aims of international communication. 10. Mass Communication: is human communication

• n

a ‘Massified Scale’, incorporating all the six basic elements of communication; that is, source, encoder, message, channel, decoder, receiver and feedback. In other words, it refers to the process of transmitting or disseminating information from a sender to a large, scattered, heterogeneous and anonymous audience simultaneously using technological devices of the mass media such as radio, television, internet, newspaper, magazines etc, with the possibility of delayed feedback.

Week 3: COMMUNICATION MODELS

Models are communication tools that illustrate communication behaviour. They are simply the common sense realities of communication revealed in a typical sketch

• diagram. Folarin (2002) submits that models are in disposable for the more complex

process of communication.

A model is a symbolic representation that shows how elements of a structure

• r

system relate for analysis and discussion purposes. Communication models help to explain the process of communication. It refers to the conceptual model used to explain the human communication process. The models here are named after their originators. Models could be used to understand the concept of communication better. Specifically, the models are categorized under the following:

• Aristotle’s Model
• Harold Lasswell Models of 1948
• Shannon and Weaver’s Model of 1949
• Wilbur Schramm’s Model of 1954
• HUB Model
• Linear Model and
• Interactive Model among others

• 1. The Aristotle’s Model of Communication

The first known scholar, who wrote about communication, though not directly, is Aristotle (384-322 BC). In his famous books, ‘Rhetoric’, Aristotle called the study of communication as ‘rhetoric’ and elaborated three elements within the process.

He provided us with this insight: Rhetoric falls into three divisions, determined by the three classes of listeners to

• speeches. Of the three elements in speech-making — speaker,

subject, and person addressed — it is the last one, the hearer that determines the speech's end and object. Here, Aristotle speaks of a communication process composed of a speaker, a message and a listener. Note, he points out that the person at the end of the communication process holds the key to whether

• r not communication takes place.

Sketch diagram of Aristotle’s Communication Model

2 . Harold Lasswell’s Model of 1948

• In Which? Channel?
• Says What?
• Message
• To Whom?
• Receiver
• With What?
• Effect
• Who?
• Sender
• Harold Lasswell, a political scientist, designed a communication model which

exchanges type mixing the main elements of communication process. Lasswell’s communication model consists of; a source sends a message, through a medium, to a receiver, producing some effect. Lasswell’s communication model asks five major questions: (Who)? Sender, Says (what)? Message, in (Which)? Channel, to (whom)? Receiver (With) what effect? Effect of the message.

Lasswell’s Model diagram

• 3. Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver’s Model of 1949

Shannon and Weaver were the first to present the Linear Model of Communication in 1949′s Mathematical Theory of Communication. The original model was designed to mirror the functioning of radio and telephone technologies. Their initial model consisted of three primary parts: sender, channel, and receiver. The sender was the part of a telephone a person spoke into, the channel was the telephone itself, and the receiver was the part of the phone where one could hear the other person. Social scientists Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver structured this model based on the following elements: An information source, which produces a message. A transmitter, which encodes the message into signals, a channel, to which signals are adapted for transmission, a receiver, which 'decodes' (reconstructs) the message from the signal, a destination, where the message arrives. David Berlo in 1960 expanded on Shannon and Weaver’s (1949) linear model of communication and created the SMCR Model of Communication. The Sender- Message-Channel-Receiver Model of communication separated the model into clear parts and has been expanded upon by other scholars. According to Daramola (2003) Shannon and Weaver’s model has been criticised by scholars because it concern itself more with mechanical transmission of message from one point to another thus laying emphasis primarily on quantity of information transmitted.

Shannon and Weaver’s Diagrammatic Model

• 4. Wilbur Schramm’s Model of 1954

In Schramm's model he notes, same with Aristotle, that communication always requires three elements-the source, the message and the destination. Ideally, the source encodes a message and transmits it to its destination via some channel, where the message is received and decoded. Schramm’s in his model propounded that, communication is usually described along a few major dimensions: Message (what type of things are communicated), source /sender/encoder (by whom), form (in which form), channel (through which medium), destination/receiver/target/decoder (to whom), and Receiver.

According to Baran (2002) Schramm’s model demonstrate the on-going reciprocal nature of communication process. There is no source, no receiver, and no feedback. This is because as communication occurs, both the interpreters are simultaneously the source and the receiver. There is no feedback; all messages are presumed to be in the reciprocation

• f other messages. Furthermore, Field of Experience in Schramm’s

communication model refers to things that influence the understanding and interpretation

• f

message like culture, social background, beliefs, experiences, values and rules. Examples: a person who always eats with spoon is informed that he has to eat with hands in that place; the person will get offended because he will think it is impolite to eat that way.

• 5. HUB Model

Hiebert, Ungurait and Bohn designed the model. It shows mass communication process as circular, dynamic and ongoing. It pictures communication as a process similar to the series of actions that take place during communication process. Circular communication gives opportunity to both parties to give their opinion. As it is dynamic and ever changing model, it is helpful

in general practice. Sender and receiver interchanges and both are equally active.

Diagram of HUB’S Model 6. Linear Model. It is a one way model to communicate with others. It consists of the sender encoding a message and channelling it to the receiver in the presence of noise. Draw backs – the linear model assumes that there is a clear cut beginning and end to communication. It also displays no feedback from the receiver. For example; a letter, email, text message, lectures.

7. Interactive Model. It is two linear models stacked on top of each

• ther. The sender channels a message to the receiver and the

receiver then becomes the sender and channels a message to the

• riginal sender. This model has added feedback, indicates that

communication is not a one way but a two way process. It also has “field of experience” which includes our cultural background, ethnicity geographic location, extend of travel, and general personal experiences accumulated over the course of your lifetime. Draw backs – there is feedback but it is not simultaneous. For example – instant messaging. The sender sends a message to the receiver, and then the original sender has to wait for the message from the original receiver to react. Or a question/answer session where you just ask a question then you get an answer.

Week 4: What is Mass Communication?

Mass Communication refers to the process or means of disseminating or transmitting information, views, or messages to a large, anonymous, and scattered heterogeneous masses of receivers who may be far removed from the message sources through the use of sophisticated equipment. In other words, communication is the sending of message through a mass medium to a large number of people. Mass Communication represents the creation and sending

• f

a homogeneous message to a large heterogeneous audience through the

• media. Baran (2002) defines mass communication as the process of

creating shared meaning between the mass media and their audience.

Also, Bittner (1989) defines mass communication as messages communicated through a mass medium to a large number of people. One needs to underscore the underlying fact that what is common in every definition of mass communication anywhere in the world is that it is communicated through a mass medium. In other words, for any message to be regarded as being mass communicated, it must be disseminated through a mass medium like Radio, Television, Newspaper and Magazine.

(Sambe 2005) submits that mass communication can be defined as a device by which a group of people working together transmits information to a large heterogeneous and anonymous audience simultaneously. It is a process by which information originates from the source to the receiver, having been thoroughly filtered and transmitted through a channel. Therefore, mass communication is the process of disseminating, sharing, passing or transmitting of information, messages, views opinion etc from a source to a large, anonymous, heterogeneous and scattered audience simultaneously through the use of technological devices of the mass media such as radio, television, internet, newspapers, magazines etc with the possibility

• f

delayed feedback. The foremost feature

• f

mass communication is that it has large number of audience. No other communication gets as many receivers as it gets. Heterogeneous Audience Mass Communication is not only composed of a large number of audiences but also aims to heterogeneous audience. The heterogeneity here means that the audience may belong to different races, groups, section, cultures

• etc. Scattered Audience: the audiences of Mass Communication are not
• rganized in a certain area rather they are highly scattered in different

geographical areas. The receivers of message of mass communication may stay anywhere in the world.

Features of Mass Communication

• 1. Nature of Audience

By nature, mass communication audience has some peculiar features. They are:

• a) Large scattered audience: Mass communication messages are directed to a

very large audience who are scattered all over the world. The audiences run in thousands, millions and billions depending on the nature or ability of the media

• rganization.
• b) Heterogeneous audience: The heterogeneity here means that the audience

may belong to different races, groups, section, cultures etc. This means that mass communication messages cannot be segregated. It cannot be directed towards certain people without others hearing it. Every human being, irrespective of age, creed, sex, wealth and affluence get the messages at the same time

• c) Anonymous audience: The audience of mass communication messages are

not known. He who receives the messages is not known to the sender. It is assumed that messages in mass communication are sent to nobody, everybody and somebody.

• d) Simultaneous: This means that mass media messages gets to the audience at

the same time or instantly. Everybody gets the message at different location across the globe at the same time.

e) Mass Media: This refers to the use of technological devices such as radio, television etc to disseminate message to a large scattered audience.

• 2. The Communication Experience/Technological Based: Mass communication

process is enhanced or made possible by the use of technological devices e.g radio, television etc.

The idea here is that mass communication messages are rapid, public and

• transient. It is public in that the content is for public good; it is not directed

to only selected few but the general public and that the messages are sent for the consumption of every member of the public. Mass communication messages by nature are rapid because the messages get to audience almost

• immediately. With the aid of new communication technologies, it takes

seconds to pass across the globe

• 3. Nature of Communicator/Sender: In mass communication, the sender

is not an individual but an organization made up of individuals who work as a team. The media is managed by media organisations and run by

• experts. It is important to point out that news casters or reporters are not the

sender of the news presented but a representative of the organization which is the actual sender. That is why after the news presentation, end credit is given to various persons who contributed in making the programme or news a success.

Characteristics of Mass Communication

• 1. Limited Sensory: this is limited to audio-visual in the process of information
• dissemination. You can only be able to hear or see the communicator of the message

through radio or television.

In other words, mass communication only enables one to use his or her sense of sight and hearing since one can only see the visual picture and hear the voice of the speaker on the broadcast station. This is unlike in a face- to- face communication where the audience can shake hands or hug the person and as such, have no limitation to the sensory channels. 2. Impersonality: participant in mass communication are usually unknown to each other. The messages are impersonal. The sender does not have any personal relationship with the receiver. 3. Transient in Nature/Permanency: mass communication messages are fast moving, always in motion and requiring great attention to be arrested and

• consumed. Once transmitted and missed, it can’t be reversed immediately in

the case of radio and television, but there is permanency with the print media; newspaper and magazine where it can be read and re-read after some time. 4. Portability and Mobility: Portability has to do with the fact that messages of mass communication are handy and that the medium through which the messages are passing could be carried from one place to another. Mobility refers to the ease with which a medium can be moved from one place to another e.g radio set. 5. Universality: the messages are universal.

FUNCTIONS OF MASS COMMUNICATION

The literature of mass communication across the globe lists the classical functions to be: news and information; analysis and interpretation; education, persuasion and public relations; advertising/sales and entertainment. Therefore, the major functions of mass communication are: surveillance of the environment, correlation of the parts of society in responding to the environment, transmission of socio-cultural heritage from one generation to the next and entertainment.

a. Surveillance of the Environment: this refers to the activities of collection and distribution of information about events in the environment, both within and outside a particular society. The surveillance function or role of the media presupposes that the media are the eyes and ears of the public. The media provides information and alert their heterogeneous audiences of the changes that take place around them The media help maintain social order by providing instructions on what has to be done in times of crisis, thereby reducing confusion among the masses. Example: in times of insurrections and uprising, natural disasters, war, health scares, etc., it is the role of the media to create awareness by providing information on what is happening and of ways in which the disaster can be faced. b. Correlation of parts of Society: this refers to the process of going beyond mere gathering and distribution of information and interpretation of what is given out as news about the environment.

People’s attitudes towards political issues, events, public policy, etc. are influenced to an extent by how the media frames and presents the issue in their discussions and

• presentations. For instance, ‘‘news behind the news’’ such as going beyond facts to

situate the events. This is also called news analysis or news commentary which of course, could accommodate some form of propaganda.

c. Transmission of Socio-cultural Heritage: this involves communicating the knowledge, values and social norm of a given society from one generation or group to another. This is what is often regarded as the educational function of any medium of mass communication such as radio

• r television. For instance, children’s television programmes are designed

to showcase good behaviours and moral standards which children can learn by watching example; Tales by Moonlight a children television programme

• n NTA network service.

d. Entertainment Function: It relates to relaxation. It is meant to ease tension from much labour. The function of entertainment in mass communication is not meant for punishment but for leisure and

• relaxation. This is simply why families can sit comfortably in their

various homes viewing comedies; sports and cartoons for children. e. Mobilization: Mass communication functions to mobilize people during times of crisis. Consider the case of Boko Haram bombings in the North- East Nigeria. Regardless of your association to the incident, Nigerians felt the attack as a nation and people followed the news as they were unfolding until government brought the situation under control.

With instant access to media and information, we can collectively witness the same events taking place in real time somewhere else, as such, mobilizing a large population of people around a particular event.

f. Persuasion: Mass communication messages are designed to induce

• r persuade people to bring a change in their beliefs system;
• pinions, attitudes and thinking on a number of issues like buy a

particular product or idea, voting, religious convictions, dowry culture etc. In addition, business enterprises design various advertisements to persuade potential customers to consume such products as advertised in the mass media whether print or electronic media. g. Integration: mass communication serves the purpose of binding

• influence. Here, the media of mass communication binds people

from different cultural backgrounds, age, religion, races, ethnicity, language barrier etc, are bound together to interact on a daily basis. People are bonded together due to the influence of mass media messages. The foregoing postulations of communication functions provide a general framework upon which each medium can be assessed.

WEEK 5: MASS MEDIA

According to Schramm (1964) a mass medium is essentially a working group organized around some device for circulating the same message, at about same time, to a large number of people. Here, it can be deduced that there is a well organized system behind each mass medium for information dissemination. Orewere (2006) posits that mass media refers to those technical channels of communication through which messages are designed, produced and disseminated to a large number of people, widely dispersed over geographical space. It therefore means that mass media are technical devices through which mass communication takes place. It can further be explained that mass media are those devices for moving messages across distance or time to accomplish mass communication.

• Types of Mass Media

Mass media can be categorized under the following: a. Print Media: this comprises of newspapers, magazines, books, pamphlet, direct mail, circulars, billboards, etc and any technical devices that carries a message to the masses by appealing to their sense of sight. b. Electronic Media: this consist of radio and audio recordings that appeal to the sense of sound, television, motion pictures, satellite and video recordings which appeal to both sound and sight. c. Narrowcast Media: Film/Cinema, and cable television d. New Media: it implies the use of desktop and portable computers as well as wireless and handheld devices used as digital means of producing, transmitting and receiving messages.

Newspapers: Newspapers are periodically published documents that carry current information about the society. Earlier newspapers were not daily publications as we see

• now. They were published weekly or bi-weekly. This was due o the absence of

adequate technology and newsgathering system. By the early 19th century, power press was invented. This led to fast printing. Invention of telegraph and teleprinter also helped us gather news from remote places.

This all facilitated the introduction of daily newspapers. Unlike other mass media, newspapers influence people in a many significant ways. A newspaper article or news is valued more than television or radio programmes. And, newspaper content is considered more credible and accurate.

• Characteristics of Newspapers
• Primarily newspapers are print media even though digital age offers online

newspapers and e-newspapers. That is why it has all the features that any print medium has.

• Predominance of news-oriented content: There are three types of content in

newspapers: news, views and advertisements. Of these news overshadows the

• thers because newspapers are primarily meant for the dissemination of news.
• Regular periodicity: Newspapers may be published daily or weekly.

Periodicity may vary but, regularity should be kept. Every newspaper keeps a particular regularity in publication.

• Future reference facility: Being a print medium, newspapers can be kept for

future use. This archiving ability makes newspapers one of the main sources of historical research.

• Low cost: Compared to other media, newspaper is a cost effective medium.

Anybody can afford a newspaper as it needs no hidden charges or other accessories.

Types of Newspapers Newspapers can be categorized into various types based on their page size/format, content type, periodicity, time of publication, area of circulation and type of the users.

Magazines and Periodicals Unlike newspapers, magazines are periodical publications carrying non- news items. Magazine is originally a French word which means storehouse. In journalistic terms, magazine is a collection of materials like stories, ads, poems, and other items that editors believe will interest audiences. Characteristics of Magazines

• Magazines are not published daily like newspapers. Periodicity f magazines

are longer than that of normal newspapers. In general, they are published weekly, biweekly or monthly.

• Unlike loose sheets of newspapers, magazines are produced as bound

volumes.

• Most of the magazines are meant for light reading and mainly for

entertainment, rather than serious reading for information gathering as in the case of books and newspapers.

• Magazines contain diverse content ranging from poems to comics and

cartoons to photo feature.

Types of Magazines Magazines are of different types. Five major categories are: General Interest Magazines: Magazines covering wide variety of topics aimed at a broad audience. They occasionally offer investigative stories and burning social issues. Examples: The Week, Outlook, India Today, Readers’ Digest, National Geographic.

• Business Magazines: Also called trade magazines. They focus on topics

related to a particular occupation, profession, or industry.

• Consumer Magazines: Consumer magazines also aim at general public in their

private and non-business lives. They are called consumer magazines as their readers prompted to consume products and services advertised in them. Books Corner (2007) opines that books are bound pages of written or printed messages of considerable length, mostly on one topic. Being meant for circulation, they are produced using durable materials and in a portable form. The Chinese invented a method for printing using wooden blocks in 400 A.D. But, it was not developed enough to print books. Invention of movable metallic types by Johannes Guttenberg revolutionized printing, thereby book

• production. Before the invention of movable metallic types, books were

expensive and large in size. They were affordable only to the wealthy, aristocratic people like political and religious leaders and business men. Guttenberg’s invention changed the

• situation. Printers could reduce price when books were made available to more
• people. The first book published using the metallic moveable types was the

Bible.

Characteristics of Books Books are portable and compact, and thus have an advantage over other media forms. Unlike other print media, books most often deal with a single subject. Thus, we can read books piece by piece for days or weeks with convenient intervals, without losing concentration.

While newspapers and magazines get old soon due to their time limitations, books remain afresh since they deal with subjects significant for a longer period. Unlike magazines and newspapers, books are stored for longer period in public

• r private libraries.
• Types of Books
• Books are categorized according to their content type and target audience.

Based on nature of the content books can be categorized generally as fiction and non-fiction. Fictions include stories, novels, poems etc. while non-fictions comprise of academic and reference books.

• The Electronic Media

Mass media that use electronic or electromechanical energy for transmission

• f messages are called electronic media. Major electronic media are radio,

television, video and audio records, CDs and DVDs etc. Of these, radio and television messages are transmitted via air waves or radio signals. The process

• f transmitting messages via radio waves or signals is called broadcasting. The

literary meaning of broadcasting is to scatter seed over a broad area rather than in particular place.

Radio: The First Broadcast Telegraph and telephone were important predecessors of radio. Samuel Morse developed the telegraph in 1844 and it was a principal means of news and information. Alexander Graham Bell demonstrated his telephone in 1876 and this invention gave birth to the concept of “broadcasting” i.e. sending of a single message as sound which can be simultaneously received by large numbers of people in different locations.

Radio is everywhere as the signals reach every nook and cranny. Therefore, more people receive their morning news from radio than from any other medium. Characteristics of Radio as a Mass Medium

• The radio is a powerful mass medium. Unlike other mass media, radio has a lot
• f advantages, both technical and message wise, to reach maximum number of

people.

• Radio is a cost effective medium: Radio sets are not at all a luxury. They are

less

• Radio is a Public Medium: Radio can be accessed by any number of people
• simultaneously. Anybody can listen to radio as it functions as a background

medium.

• Radio is accessible for the Illiterates: Illiterate people can also access radio as

they can overcome the deficiency of illiteracy through radio programmes.

• Radio is a mobile medium
• Radio is an Audio Medium: Being an audio medium, radio is accessible to the

visually challenged also.

Types of Radio Stations Commercial Stations: Stations under this category support themselves financially by selling time on their airwaves to advertisers. Non-Commercial Stations: Non-Commercial Stations do not receive financial support from advertisers in the sense of airing commercials. They are normally funded by the governments.

• AM and FM Stations: This categorization is purely based on the type of waves used for

transmitting radio messages. Both AM and FM radio stations transmit a carrier wave that is some changed or modulated to carry audio signal such as music or voice. With AM (Amplitude Modulation) radio, the amplitude or strength of the carrier wave’s vibration fluctuates with the sound. With FM (Frequency Modulation) radio, the strength of the carrier wave remains constant, and instead it is the frequency or number of vibration within the wave that changes based on sound.

• Radio Programmes includes: news, news bulletin, documentaries, talk programmes,

interviews, entertainment/music, etc.

• Television

Curran and Gurevitch (2005) posits that television refers to the transmission of visual images, generally with accompanying sound, in the form of electromagnetic waves that when received can be reconverted into visual images. Between 1935 and 1938, the Nazi government under Adolph Hitler in Germany operated the world’s first regular television service, with propaganda broadcasts to specially equipped theatres. It was after the end

• f World War II in 1946 that commercial television came into being in the United States.

In the same year, Peter Goldmark introduced colour television system. The development of satellite television in the 1970s allowed for more channels and encouraged businessmen to target programming toward specific audiences.

Television is one of the most popular inventions of the last century. Every day we spend hours with television. It is a reality that we cannot imagine a day without television consumption. Our imagination of the world is formed with television.

Characteristics of Television

.Audio Visual Medium: Radio is audio medium while television is audio visual, means

it carries moving pictures and sound.

• Live Medium: With these magical features of television, it enables us to view

the events anywhere in the world live while sitting in our drawing rooms.

• Domestic Medium: Film is also an audio visual medium. It is not live. And,

for watching films, we have to theatre. Most of us watch television in home environment because this medium is conceived to be so. So, it is called a domestic medium.

• Popular Medium: Literacy is not a barrier in watching television while

newspaper reading requires literacy. Any illiterate can get information and entertainment from television. In that sense, it is really a popular medium any type of people can use.

• Transitory Medium: You can read today’s newspaper in the evening or in the
• morning. But, television programmes are to be watched while they are telecast.

Television has not archival facility. So, it is called as a transitory medium. Radio has also the same characteristics.

• Expensive Medium: In every term, television is expensive. Television set is

costlier than a radio set or newspaper.

Film: Like television, film is also an audio visual medium. It is the most popular medium of the last century. The technology behind the cinema was invented by Lois Lumiere and his brother Auguste Lumiere who are famously known as Lumiere

• brothers. But, their invention of moving picture technique was just an extension of

photography.

Their equipment called ‘cinematographe’ was a compact, portable machine with an inbuilt camera and projector. They exhibited actualities in life like arrival of a train, workers leaving a factory and such real events with their equipment.

• Functions of Film: Entertainment function, relaxation, catharsis that is, purge

people of negative emotions, psychological escape, creation of heroes and role models, mirroring the society, education function etc

• Defining New Media: New media can be defined as interactive forms of

communication that use the Internet, including podcasts, blogs, social networks, text messaging, wikis, virtual worlds and all other computer aided communication formats available online. New media makes it possible for anyone to create, modify, and share content and share it with others, using relatively simple tools that are often free or inexpensive. New media requires a computer or mobile device with Internet access.

• Internet and the Global Village: The McLuhan’s idea of a global village is

made possible by the emergence of the Internet. Global village is the idea that the new communication technologies will permit people to become increasingly involved in one another’s lives.

McLuhan believed that electronic media would permit “the human tribe” to become “one family”. However this involvement does not mean harmony, it simply means an exchange of ideas. It is argued that many people will be shut out of the electronic debate due to technology in the information gaps.

WEEK 6: INFLUENCE OF THE MASS MEDIA ON THE

SOCIETY

McQuail (1977) defines media effects as any of the consequences of mass media operation, whether intended or not, that has effectiveness and the capacity to achieve given objectives. Media effects mean different things to many people. To some, it is just about the impact of the mass media message on the audience. Even at that, some communication academics believe that particular parts of the media message must be contextualized. In other words, some academics talk about media effects to mean the impact of particular content of the mass media message. For instance, the impact of watching pornography on audience is propensity to rape. In this case, it is the contents of the media message that produce the impact. In the same vein, some academics are concerned with the impact of particular media message conventions or public notions about a media message. For instance, the general convention is that video games may be addictive for youngsters because they are so fast paced and use so many “orienting devices” that they may control children’s attention.

Black et al (1995) cited in Baran (2002) pointed out that some scholars are more concerned with the short-term or transitory effects of media; others strive to determine whether the media have more durable or long term effects. Sometimes, the positive or beneficial effects of media are examined, but more often, concerns are with the negative, detrimental or anti-social consequences of using media.

They further posited that some people examine media effects simply for the purpose of better understanding the roles and consequences of media in the

• society. Others examine media effect in order to know how to utilize media

more effectively to achieve specific goals. Still, others consider media impact in order to administer or regulate media or to better formulate public policy regarding media.

• WEEK 7: Mass Communication as Social Force

Mass communication has enormous power. It is a social force because “it has the capability of causing cultural change or influences people.” Television, radio, and film impact people regardless of one's social status, ethnicity, religion, etc. Furthermore, McQuail (2005) argues that mass communication can be considered as both a ‘societal’ and a ‘cultural’ phenomenon. The mass media institution is part of the structure of society, and its techno-logical infrastructure is part of the economic and power base, while the ideas, images and information disseminated by the media are evidently an important aspect of

• ur culture. If we consider mass media as an aspect of society (base or

structure), then the option of materialism is presented.

There is a considerable body of theory that views culture as dependent on the economic and power structure of a society. It is assumed that whoever owns or controls the media can choose, or set limits to, what they do. This is the essence of the Marxist position. If we consider the media primarily in the light of their contents (thus more as culture), then the option of idealism is indicated.

Today, the various influences are so bound together that neither mass communication nor modern society is conceivable without the other, and each is a necessary, though not a sufficient, condition for the other. From this point of view we have to conclude that the media may equally be considered to mould or to mirror society and social changes. The media institution is essentially concerned with the production and distribution of knowledge in the widest sense of the word. Such knowledge enables us to make some sense of our experience of the social world, even if the ‘taking of meaning’ occurs in relatively autonomous and varied ways. The information, images and ideas made available by the media may, for most people, be the main source of an awareness of a shared past time (history) and of a present social location. They are also a store of memories and a map of where we are and who we are (identity) and may also provide the materials for orientation to the future. As noted at the outset, the media to a large extent serve to constitute our perceptions and definitions of social reality and normality for the purposes of a public, shared social life, and is a key source of standards, models and norms.

WEEK 8: Media as a Societal Catalyst for Development

In a country like Nigeria, media’s role in national development is highly

• important. Media’s contributions to national development are mainly in two

ways: As advocates for development and as carriers of development messages. Mass media find out problems faced by people in different walks of their life and make the administrators aware of them.

Most often, media report such events and further campaign to get the grievances redressed. On the other hand, media make people aware of their rights, government subsidies, development policies and the merits and demerits

• f adopting or practicing them for better life. Government controlled media

perform these duties better than the private media do. This development orient function of media is termed as Development Communication. Development Communication has been recognized as a special area in communication study and research. There are powerful social forces that act through the mass media to influence the meanings we give to things. The news media for one exert significance influence on how we conceptualize the world. They affect the meaning we give to events across the globe-Europe, Asia, Africa South America etc. They affect the meanings we give to events close to us. This however shapes our world

• view. They tell us, in effect, who to trust, and who to fear, who gives us

security, and what threatens us, what is significant in our lives, and what is insignificant.

WEEK 9: Debate of Mass Media Effect on the Audience

According to McQuail (1977) media effects refers to any of the consequences of mass media operation, whether intended or not, that has effectiveness and the capacity to achieve given objectives. More so, Black et al (1995) observes that the term media effects not only refer to the consequences or impacts of media use on individuals, society and culture; media effects also are rather well-defined area of scholarly inquiry that examines the impact of media.

Black summarises certain rules or conventions about what must occur before something is considered to be true media effect. They are:

• a. The presumed cause (e.g. a person watches a lot of violence on television or

in films) and the presumed effects (e.g. a person becomes more aggressive) change together, in some verifiable way;

• b. The presumed cause (e.g. viewing violence) must precede in time the

presumed effect (e.g. engaging in aggression); and

• c. Rival causes and explanations for these other causes (e.g. living in a volatile

environment) must be controlled for and/or eliminated.

• Media effects mean different things to many people. To some, it is just about

the impact of the mass media message on the audience. Even at that, some communication academics believe that particular parts of the media message must be contextualized. In other words, some academics talk about media effects to mean the impact of particular content of the mass media message. For instance, the impact of watching pornography on audience is propensity to

• rape. In this case, it is the contents of the media message that produce the

impact.

Despite the role of the media in the society, there exist sharp arguments and counter arguments about the presence, strength and operation of media effects on the audience. In other words, school of thoughts exist as regard to the limited or minimal effects of the mass media. The arguments and their counter arguments are presented below as

• rganized by Standly Baran (Baran, 2004: 416 – 417).
• 1. If media have any effects at all they are not the media’s fault; media simply

hold a mirror to society and reflect the status quo, showing us and our world as they already are.

• Counter-arguments

Media hold a very selective mirror. The whole world in all its vastness and complexity cannot possibly be represented, so media practitioners must make

• choices. In other words, some things are over-represented in the media, others

under-represented and still others disappear altogether.

• 2. If media have any effect at all it is only to reinforce pre-existing values and
• benefits. Family, church, school, and other socializing agents are much better.
• Counter-arguments

The traditional socializing agents have lost much of their power to influence in

• ur complicated and fast-paced world. Moreover, reinforcing effects are not the

same as having no effect. If the media can reinforce the good in our culture, media can just as easily reinforce the bad.

• 3· If media have any effects at all they are only on the unimportant things in
• ur lives, such as fads and fashion.

Counter-argument Fads and fashion are not unimportant to us. The car we drive, the clothes we wear, and the ways we look help define us; they characterize us to others. In fact, it is central to

• ur self definition and happiness. If media influence only the unimportant things in our

lives, why are billions of dollars spent on media efforts to sway opinion about social issues such as universal health care, nuclear power and global warming.

• 4. Media content has limited impact on audiences because it is only make-

believe people; it is not real. Counter-arguments News is not make-believe (at least it’s not supposed to be) and as such people are supposed to take it seriously. Most film and television dramas are intentionally produced to seem real to viewers, with documentary-like production techniques such as hand held cameras and uneven lighting. Much contemporary television programmes like talk-show and reality shows are expressly real. Example: Gulder Ultimate Search.

• Advertising is supposed to tell the truth: Before they develop the

intellectual and critical capacity to know what is not real, children confront the world in all its splendour and vulgarity through television and what television effects researchers call the early winded. To kids, what they see is real. To enjoy what we consume, we willingly suspend disbelief that is; we willingly accept as real what is put before us.

REFERENCES

• Baran, S.J. (2002). Introduction to mass communication. New York:

McGraw Hill. Bitner, R. (1989). Mass communication: An Introduction. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Corner, J. (2007) Media, power and culture. In E. Devereux (ed.), Media Studies, London: Sage. pp. 211–30 Curran, J. & Gurevitch, M. (2005) Mass media and society, 4th edn. London: Hodder Arnold. Dominick, J.R. (2005). The dynamics of mass communication. New York: Harper and Row Ella, D.N & Onwochei, M.O (2005). An introduction to speech

• communication. Jos: King’s Press Nigeria.

Hybels, S. & Weaver, R.L. (1992). Communicating effectively. New York: McGraw-Hill Inc. Sambe, J.A. (2005). Introduction to mass communication Practice in

• Nigeria. Ibadan: Spectrum Books.

McQuail, D. (1977). Towards a sociology of mass communication. London: Collier Macmillian McQuail, D. (1997). Mass communication theory. New Delhi: Vistaar Publications McQuail, D. (2005). Mass communication theory (5thed). London: SAGE Publications. Orewere, B.A (2006). The mass communicator and the audience. Jos: African Centre for Communication and Environment (ACCE) Schramm, W. (1964). Mass Media and National Development: The Role of Information in the Developing Countries. California: Stanford University Press. Yaroson, D.E and Asemah, S.E (2008). Theories and models of mass

• communication. Jos: Great feature Printing/Business Centre