E DUCATIONAL R EFORMS IN THE U NITED S TATES : W HAT H AVE W E L EARNED ? MARCIA C. LINN UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, BERKELEY JERUSALEM, ISRAEL, NOVEMBER 1, 2016
Factors shaping reform in the US Global competitiveness Leadership & foundation support National policies Insights into learning and instruction Advances in technology Sputnik Satellite
Curricular reforms of the 1960s Motivated by Soviet launch of Sputnik in 1956 Funded by NSF, founded in 1953 Led by physicists, chemists, & biologists The Physical Science Study Committee (PSSC) sought to: “….emphasize fundamental principles in physics, encouraging understanding as opposed to memorization ”
Curricula emphasized basic science PSSC led by Jerrold Zacharias, a physicist at MIT, linked time, space, and matter. Experiments introduced wave motion using ripple tanks, connected ripple tank findings to propagation of light waves, and eventually to the PSSC Ripple Tank kinematics of special relativity
Woods Hole Conference Research foundation "We begin with the hypothesis that any subject can be taught effectively in some intellectually honest form to any child at any stage of development." (Bruner, 1960, p.33) Thus was born the spiral curriculum.
PSSC was difficult for most students Designers of curricula in the 1960s often blamed teachers for lack of success Criticisms by trial teachers had little effect (Welch, 1979). NSF funded 3-week teacher summer institutes to help. ◦ A science teacher community emerged
Impacts of NSF funded curricula The NSF materials did not increase science enrollment (Welch, 1979) Comparison studies showed that the NSF materials improved performance on tests aligned with the goals of the materials (Shymansky et al., 1990) Performance on tests primarily emphasizing recall of details was unchanged Shymansky, J. A., Hedges, L. V., & Woodworth, G. (1990). A reassessment of the effects of inquiry-based science curricula of the 60's on student performance. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 27 (2), 127-144. doi:10.1002/tea.3660270205.
Long term impact Spiral curriculum became circular: Third International Mathematics and Science Study (1995): American curriculum is a “mile wide and an inch deep.”
Proliferation of curricular topics Multiple efforts to articulate the standards for science exacerbate the problem 1990 AAAS produces Science for all Americans, Benchmarks, and the Atlas 1996 National Research Council produces the National Science Education Standards
Failed efforts to achieve coherence The Atlas of Science Literacy grows exponentially. Advocates from each scientific and engineering discipline argue for their topics
No Child Left Behind abandoned science Mandates annual assessment of reading and mathematics. Schools teach test taking Teaching of science is neglected.
Assessments shaped instruction National and state assessments emphasize recall of details. Typical item: To keep a heavy box sliding across a carpeted floor at constant speed, a person must continuously exert a constant force. This force is used primarily to overcome which of the following forces: A. Air resistance B. The weight of the box C. The frictional force exerted by the floor on the box D. The gravitational force exerted by the Earth on the box
Science education research funded 1980 NSF Science Education directorate started a small research program that was thwarted by Reagan funding cuts. 1984 Advanced Applications of Technology program led by Andrew Molnar 1995 NSF research centers led by partnerships of: researchers, discipline experts, technologists, and teachers
Learning sciences synthesize results in design principles 1991 Journal of the Learning Sciences 1992 Design-based research methods 2006 Design principles database
Research on student intuitive ideas Students bring multiple ideas to science class: What do middle school students say causes the seasons? Discuss your prediction with a neighbor
The earth is closer to the sun in Summer. The seasons are caused by the hours of daylight. In summer the days are longer; in winter they are shorter. Seasons depend on whether the earth is facing the sun. The earth is tilted so sometimes it faces the sun and sometimes it doesn’t.
Expect cultural influences Brunei Equator
Build on student ideas rather than transmitting information Each idea has some merit ◦ It is hotter, closer to a heat source ◦ Days are longer in summer ◦ Tilt is valuable insight If ignore student ideas…... “Seasons are caused by the distance from the sun but in science class the answer is different” Misconceptions reconceived (Smith, diSessa, & Roschelle, 1993) Knowledge integration framework (Linn, Songer, & Eylon, 1996)
Design inquiry around contemporary issues Connect seasons to authentic problem: Design a house for energy efficiency
Next Generation Science Standards Reform led by • Informed by partnership of learning sciences discipline • Designed to develop coherent experts, understanding learning • Responsive to scientists, and needs of specific school leaders students, schools, and leaders.
NGSS Discipline Experts HELEN R. QUINN (Chair), Physics, Stanford University WYATT W. ANDERSON, Genetics, University of Georgia, Athens TANYA ATWATER, Earth Science, University of California, Santa Barbara RODOLFO DIRZO, Biology, Stanford University PHILLIP A. GRIFFITHS, Physics, Princeton, New Jersey DUDLEY R. HERSCHBACH, Chemistry, Harvard University JOHN C. MATHER, NASA, Greenbelt, Maryland REBECCA R. RICHARDS-KORTUM, Bioengineering, Rice University
NGSS Learning Scientists PHILIP BELL, Learning Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle THOMAS B. CORCORAN, Teachers College, Columbia University JONATHAN OSBORNE, Learning Science, Stanford University JAMES W. PELLEGRINO, Assessment, University of Illinois, Chicago BRIAN REISER, Learning Science, Northwestern University WALTER G. SECADA, Education, University of Miami DEBORAH C. SMITH, Curriculum, Pennsylvania State University
NGSS School Leaders LINDA P.B. KATEHI, Office of the Chancellor, University of California, Davis BRETT D. MOULDING, Utah Schools, North Ogden STEPHEN L. PRUITT, Superintendents, Georgia Department of Education
NGSS & Learning Sciences research Scaffold inquiry to promote autonomy, lifelong learning Design learning progressions to promote coherent understanding Embed assessment in instruction Leverage technology for learning
NGSS Components
Cross-cutting concepts Patterns Cause and effect Scale Systems and models Energy and matter Structure and function Stability and change
Core Ideas
Pedagogical Framework Knowledge integration informs design of instruction, assessment, and professional development 2000 2004 2009 2011 [2015]
Curricular example Web-based Inquiry Science Environment (WISE) Designed based on learning sciences research to follow the knowledge integration framework (Linn & Eylon, 2011).
Thermodynamics challenge You work for store that serves hot drinks like coffee and tea, as well as cold drinks like sodas and slushies. Customers are complaining that the hot drinks cool down too fast and the cold drinks warm up too fast. Your challenge: design cups that keep drinks warm or cold Do you need two different materials to keep hot drinks hot and cold drinks cold or could you use the same material for both? Design a study to find out! I will use this example: http://wise.berkeley.edu/project/18067?constraints=false#/vle/node21
Minimalist student report: This graph shows what we did to get the right answer Tests: Clay, aluminum with hot beverage in cold air Glass, plastic, Styrofoam [for only 2 minutes] with cold beverage in hot air Wood with warm beverage in cold air
Systematic student report As you can see the Styrofoam material is the best to use for cold and hot drinks because it keeps them either cold or hot longer than the other materials. The styrofoam cups cooled or warmed up the drinks the slowest out of all of the materials. There is no other possibilities to use for cold and hot drink cup materials. We want to improve the computer model by making the graph go a little faster when recording the data.
Connections to NGSS Cross cutting concepts (patterns) and core ideas (energy) Practices such as asking questions, using models, analyzing data… Problem that stimulates students to identify related issues [cost effectiveness, waste management, computer speed] Report serves as embedded assessment
Advances from Sputnik to NGSS Funding stimulates educational research and reforms build on classroom research Leadership for reform includes learning scientists and teacher-leaders State Education Departments empowered to customize recommendations Reforms incorporate research to: ◦ Streamline number of core concepts ◦ Establish learning progressions ◦ Use cross-cutting concepts to promote coherence
Challenges: Professional development Like the Sputnik reforms, NGSS neglects professional development Teachers expected to use the practices to guide their own development ◦ Professional Learning Communities offer an excellent opportunity
Recommend
More recommend
