SLIDE 1
- Prof. Dr. Jürgen Scheffran & Prof. Dr. Udo Schickhoff
with slides provided by Jürgen Böhner
CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE
M.Sc. Module ‚Global Transformation and Environmental Change‘
- Prof. Dr. Jürgen Scheffran
Abteilung Integrative Geographie, Universität Hamburg Research Group Climate Change and Security Grindelberg 7, Room 2014 (Sprechstunde nach Vereinbarung) Tel: 040 – 42838 7722 Email: juergen.scheffran@zmaw.de Web: www.clisec-hamburg.de
SLIDE 2
Part A: Climate and Environment – Jürgen Scheffran I Introduction II The Climate System III Climate Change IV Environmental Change Part B: Human Impact on World Vegetation – Udo Schickhoff Final Exam
CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE
M.Sc. Module ‚Global Transformation and Environmental Change‘
SLIDE 3 CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE
M.Sc. Module ‚Global Transformation and Environmental Change‘
Literature:
- Barry, R.G.; Chorley, R.J. (2003) Atmosphere, weather, and climate, Routledge.
- Schönwiese, Christian-Dietrich (2013) Klimatologie, 4.th edition, UTB.
- IPCC (2013) Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis, Contribution of WG I
to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, WGI AR5 4th Assessment Report.
- Gebhardt, H., Glaser, R., Radtke, U., Reuber, P. (eds.) (2012) Geographie - Physische
Geographie und Humangeographie, Berlin: Springer.
- IPCC (2007) Climate Change 2007 – The Physical Science Basis, Contribution of WG
I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, UK und NY, USA.
- Oke, T.R. (1987): Boundary Layer Climates. – Wiley & Sons, New York.
- McKnight, T.L. & D. Hess (2008): Physical Geography. – Pearson. London
- Hess, D. & T.L. McKnight (2009): Physische Geographie. – Pearson. London.
SLIDE 4
Aims of the lecture Knowledge of the fundamentals of climate system dynamics and factors affecting climate change in present, past and future; Insights in climate and human-induced environmental changes and pressures on environmental resources, ecosystem functions and services with a particular focus on human impact on world vegetation
CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE
M.Sc. Module ‚Global Transformation and Environmental Change‘
SLIDE 5
Content
CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE
M.Sc. Module ‚Global Transformation and Environmental Change‘
Introduction into basic physical processes causing fluctuations in the Earth's climate Evolution of the Earth’s climate system and the climate history Climate-determined process domains and environments Impact of climate change on environmental resources (soil, water, vegetation) Interdependencies of climate and human induced degradation processes and deterioration of ecosystem functions and services with a particular focus on human impact on world vegetation Scenario-based projections of future climate and environmental change; climate change adaptation and mitigation strategies.
SLIDE 6 CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE
M.Sc. Module ‚Global Transformation and Environmental Change‘
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1860 1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000
Temperatureanomalies [°C]
Global Temperatures 1860–2008 (SCHÖNWIESE 2009)
SLIDE 7 CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE
M.Sc. Module ‚Global Transformation and Environmental Change‘
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1860 1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000
Temperatureanomalies [°C]
statistical simulation (neuronal net)
Global Temperatures 1860–2008 (SCHÖNWIESE 2009)
SLIDE 8 CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE
M.Sc. Module ‚Global Transformation and Environmental Change‘
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1860 1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000
Temperatureanomalies [°C]
Kr SM Ag SA EC Pi Ka
statistical simulation (neuronal net)
explosive volcanic eruption: Kr = Krakatau (1883) SM = Santa Maria (1902) Ag = Agung (1963) SA = St. Augustine (1976) EC = El Chichon (1982) Pi = Pinatubo (1991) Ka = Kasatochi (2008)
Global Temperatures 1860–2008 (SCHÖNWIESE 2009)
SLIDE 9 CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE
M.Sc. Module ‚Global Transformation and Environmental Change‘
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1860 1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000
Temperatureanomalies [°C]
Kr SM Ag SA EC Pi Ka
statistical simulation (neuronal net) sulfat signal
explosive volcanic eruption: Kr = Krakatau (1883) SM = Santa Maria (1902) Ag = Agung (1963) SA = St. Augustine (1976) EC = El Chichon (1982) Pi = Pinatubo (1991) Ka = Kasatochi (2008)
Global Temperatures 1860–2008 (SCHÖNWIESE 2009)
SLIDE 10 CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE
M.Sc. Module ‚Global Transformation and Environmental Change‘
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1860 1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000
Temperatureanomalies [°C]
Kr SM Ag SA EC Pi Ka
statistical simulation (neuronal net) sulfat signal
explosive volcanic eruption: Kr = Krakatau (1883) SM = Santa Maria (1902) Ag = Agung (1963) SA = St. Augustine (1976) EC = El Chichon (1982) Pi = Pinatubo (1991) Ka = Kasatochi (2008) El Niño
Global Temperatures 1860–2008 (SCHÖNWIESE 2009)
SLIDE 11 CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE
M.Sc. Module ‚Global Transformation and Environmental Change‘
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1860 1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000
Temperatureanomalies [°C]
Kr SM Ag SA EC Pi Ka
statistical simulation (neuronal net) sulfat signal greenhouse gas signal
explosive volcanic eruption: Kr = Krakatau (1883) SM = Santa Maria (1902) Ag = Agung (1963) SA = St. Augustine (1976) EC = El Chichon (1982) Pi = Pinatubo (1991) Ka = Kasatochi (2008) El Niño
Global Temperatures 1860–2008 (SCHÖNWIESE 2009)
SLIDE 12 CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE
M.Sc. Module ‚Global Transformation and Environmental Change‘
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1860 1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000
Temperatureanomalies [°C]
Kr SM Ag SA EC Pi Ka
statistical simulation (neuronal net) sulfat signal greenhouse gas signal greenhouse gas & particle signal
explosive volcanic eruption: Kr = Krakatau (1883) SM = Santa Maria (1902) Ag = Agung (1963) SA = St. Augustine (1976) EC = El Chichon (1982) Pi = Pinatubo (1991) Ka = Kasatochi (2008) El Niño
Global Temperatures 1860–2008 (SCHÖNWIESE 2009)
SLIDE 13
CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE
M.Sc. Module ‚Global Transformation and Environmental Change‘
Left (a): Comparison between global mean surface temperature anomalies (°C) from obser- vations (black) and AOGCM simulations forced with anthropogenic and natural forcings (58 simulations produced by 14 models). Right (b): Comparison between global mean surface temperature anomalies (°C) from obser- vations (black) and AOGCM simulations forced with natural forcings only (19 simulations produced by 5 models). According to the Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) of the IPCC (2007), the likelihood of solely natural forcings for the warming in the last 50 years is below 5 % (IPCC 2007).
SLIDE 14
Left (a): Comparison between global mean surface temperature anomalies (°C) from obser- vations (black) and AOGCM simulations forced with anthropogenic and natural forcings (58 simulations produced by 14 models). Right (b): Comparison between global mean surface temperature anomalies (°C) from obser- vations (black) and AOGCM simulations forced with natural forcings only (19 simulations produced by 5 models). According to the Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) of the IPCC (2007), the likelihood of solely natural forcings for the warming in the last 50 years is below 5 % (IPCC 2007).
CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE
M.Sc. Module ‚Global Transformation and Environmental Change‘
Multi-model averages and assessed ranges for surface warming (IPCC 2007)
SLIDE 15
Part A: Climate and Environment – Jürgen Scheffran I Introduction II The Climate System III Climate Change IV Environmental Change Part B: Human Impact on World Vegetation – Udo Schickhoff
CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE
M.Sc. Module ‚Global Transformation and Environmental Change‘
SLIDE 16 II THE CLIMATE SYSTEM Basics
The Earth-Atmosphere System Components, Processes and Interactions
(Source:www.bom.gov.au/lam/climate)
SLIDE 17 II THE CLIMATE SYSTEM Basics
The Earth-Atmosphere System Components, Processes and Interactions
(Source:www.bom.gov.au/lam/climate)
(Source: http://co2now.org/Know-the-Changing-Climate)
SLIDE 18
Scales Spatiotemporal Dimensions
II THE CLIMATE SYSTEM Basics
Time and Space scales of various atmospheric phenomena according to OKE (1978) Micro-scale: 10-2 to 103 m Local-scale: 102 to 5 x 104 m Meso-scale: 104 to 2 x 105 m Macro-scale: 105 to 108 m
SLIDE 19
Scales Spatiotemporal Dimensions
II THE CLIMATE SYSTEM Basics
Time and Space scales of various atmospheric phenomena according to OKE (1978) Micro-scale: 10-2 to 103 m Local-scale: 102 to 5 x 104 m Meso-scale: 104 to 2 x 105 m Synoptic-scale Macro-scale: 105 to 108 m
SLIDE 20 Scales Spatiotemporal Dimensions
II THE CLIMATE SYSTEM Basics
(Source: BENDIX 2004)
topo-climate climate zone regional climate sub-regional climate landscape climate micro- local- meso- macro-climate climate of a forest stand valley climate climate of the lake district tropical climate week day hour minute second turbulence thermal lift con- vection thunder
local wind cold front cy- clone rosby wave Climatology Scales Meteorology micro-/ local climate
SLIDE 21
Earth-Sun Relations The Solar System
II THE CLIMATE SYSTEM Basics
The Solar System (McKNIGHT & HESS 2008)
SLIDE 22
Earth-Sun Relations The Sun
II THE CLIMATE SYSTEM Basics
RADIATION: Transport of energy via electromagnetic waves The emitted radiation of the photosphere of the sun is called solar flux. The Earth only receives 0,000000002 % of the whole energy emitted by the sun DIMENSIONS diameter: 1.390.000 km mass: 2 × 1030 kg
SLIDE 23 Erdkruste Ozeanische Kruste 6 km (0-9 km) Kontinentale Kruste 40 km (10-80 km)
Dimensions Mean Radius: 6.371,0 km
- Equat. Radius: 6.378.1 km
Polar Radius: 6.356.8 km
- Equat. Perimeter: 40.075 km
- Merid. Perimeter: 40.008 km
Surface: 510.072.000 km2 Gravity: g = 9,81 [m·s-2] Earth-Sun Relations The Earth
II THE CLIMATE SYSTEM Basics
SLIDE 24
Earth-Sun Relations The Earth's Orbit
II THE CLIMATE SYSTEM Basics
SLIDE 25 Earth-Sun Relations Insolation
II THE CLIMATE SYSTEM Basics
Average Temperature [°C]
SLIDE 26
Earth-Sun Relations Irradiation
II THE CLIMATE SYSTEM Basics
Solar constant I0 = 1368 W·m-2 =1368 J·m-2·s-1 with a range of 0.1% (sunspots) I0 = 1420 W·m-2 in Perihelion (3. January) I0 = 1319 W·m-2 in Aphelion (3. July) Daily sums of incoming solar radiation at the top of the atmosphere: 13 kWh·m-2·d-1 Pole (Summer Solstice) 12 kWh·m-2·d-1 Mid Latitudes (Summer Solstice) 8-9 kWh·m-2·d-1 Equatorial Latitudes (Summer Solstice)
h I h I I 90 cos sin Lambert’s Cosine Law I = intensity of radiation for a sun’s altitude h [W·m-2], I0 = solar constant [W·m-2], h = sun’s altitude [°], 90 – h = solar zenith angle [°]
SLIDE 27 The Atmosphere Structure and Composition
II THE CLIMATE SYSTEM Basics
Composition of the atmosphere (McKNIGHT & HESS 2008; BENDIX 2004) Acceleration of gravity
z g
9 2 2
10 1 cos 000000059 . cos 0000267 . 1 806 . 9 g = acceleration of gravity [m·s-2], φ = latitude [°], z = altitude [m] Mass of the Atmosphere: 5 × 1018 kg (5.000.000.000.000.000 tons)
SLIDE 28 The Atmosphere Structure and Composition
II THE CLIMATE SYSTEM Basics
[°C] suface
Left: Principal layers of the atmosphere and vertical temperature profile (WOFSY 2006) Right: Structure and layers of the troposphere (GEBHARDT et al. 2007)
SLIDE 29
The Atmosphere Structure and Composition
II THE CLIMATE SYSTEM Basics
Principal layers of the atmosphere Layers of the troposphere
─ ─ ─ ─ ─ ─ ─ ─ Turbulent Surface Layer
SLIDE 30 Forms of Energy and Energy Transmission Overview
(Source: Jensen 2000)
II THE CLIMATE SYSTEM Energy and Mass Exchange
SLIDE 31
n h E with C n E = energy [J], h = Planck constant = 6.626·10-34 [J·s], n = frequency [n·s-1], C = speed of light = 2.99792·108 [m·s-1], λ = wavelength [m] Energy of electromagnetic waves Forms of Energy and Energy Transmission Radiation
II THE CLIMATE SYSTEM Energy and Mass Exchange
SLIDE 32
Forms of Energy and Energy Transmission Radiation
II THE CLIMATE SYSTEM Energy and Mass Exchange
SLIDE 33 Emissivity values (OKE 1978) Stefan Bolzmann law A = black-body (grey-body) irradiance or energy flux density [W·m-2], ε = emissivity, σ = Stefan-Bolzmann constant = 5.67·10-8 [W·m-2·K-4], T = absolute temperature of the black-body (grey-body) [K] ) (
4
T A Forms of Energy and Energy Transmission Radiation
II THE CLIMATE SYSTEM Energy and Mass Exchange
wavelength
energy flux density [W·m-2]
Earth Sun
SLIDE 34 λmax = peak wavelength [μm], T = absolute temperature [K], 2898 = Wien’s constant Wien’s displacement law T 2898
max
Stefan Bolzmann law A = black-body (grey-body) irradiance or energy flux density [W·m-2], ε = emissivity, σ = Stefan-Bolzmann constant = 5.67·10-8 [W·m-2·K-4], T = absolute temperature of the black- body (grey-body) [K] ) (
4
T A Forms of Energy and Energy Transmission Radiation
II THE CLIMATE SYSTEM Energy and Mass Exchange
wavelength
energy flux density [W·m-2]
Earth Sun
SLIDE 35
Forms of Energy and Energy Transmission Radiation
II THE CLIMATE SYSTEM Energy and Mass Exchange
Comparison of solar and terrestrial radiation intensity (McKNIGHT & HESS 2008)
SLIDE 36 Erdkruste Ozeanische Kruste 6 km (0-9 km) Kontinentale Kruste 40 km (10-80 km)
Dimensions of the Earth Mean Radius: 6.371,0 km
- Equat. Radius: 6.378.1 km
Polar Radius: 6.356.8 km
- Equat. Diameter: 40.075 km
- Merid. Diameter: 40.008 km
Surface: 510.072.000 km2 Half-surf.: 255.036.000 km2 Disc-surf.: 127.518.000 km2 Gravity: g = 9,81 [m·s-2] Forms of Energy and Energy Transmission Radiation
II THE CLIMATE SYSTEM Energy and Mass Exchange
SLIDE 37 Energy Cascades Short-wave Radiation Balance
II THE CLIMATE SYSTEM Energy and Mass Exchange
The generalized energy budget of earth and its atmosphere (LAUER & BENDIX 2006)
+26 +4 +30 +25 -4
+19 +51
Surface Atmosphere Space
+19
SI SD SE QS
SLIDE 38 QS = short-wave radiation balance [W·m-2], SI = direct solar radiation [W·m-2], SD = diffuse short-wave beam [W·m-2], SE = reflected short-wave radiation [W·m-2], α = albedo Short-wave radiation balance of the Earth‘s surface Radiation Balance and Energy Budget Equations
II THE CLIMATE SYSTEM Energy and Mass Exchange
1
D I E D I S
S S S S S Q Albedo values of various surface conditions (WEISCHET 1991)
SLIDE 39
Solar Radiation Spatial Distribution
II THE CLIMATE SYSTEM Energy and Mass Exchange
Average daily solar radiation at the surface (www.3tier.com/en/support/resource-maps)
SLIDE 40 II THE CLIMATE SYSTEM Energy and Mass Exchange
Surface Atmosphere Space
+26 +4 +30 +25 -4 +6
+19 +108
SI SD SE QS LE
+19 +51
Energy Cascades Long-wave Radiation Balance
The generalized energy budget of earth and its atmosphere (LAUER & BENDIX 2006)
SLIDE 41 Energy Cascades Absorption
II THE CLIMATE SYSTEM Energy and Mass Exchange
Absorptivity of selected gases of the atmosphere (www.ees.rochester.edu/fehnlab)
solar window atmosph. window
SLIDE 42 II THE CLIMATE SYSTEM Energy and Mass Exchange
Surface Atmosphere Space
+26 +4 +30 +25 -4 +70
+64 +6
+93 +19 +108
SI SD SE QS LE LA QL
+19 +51
Energy Cascades Long-wave Radiation Balance
The generalized energy budget of earth and its atmosphere (LAUER & BENDIX 2006)
SLIDE 43 II THE CLIMATE SYSTEM Energy and Mass Exchange
Surface Atmosphere Space
+26 +4 +30 +25 -4
+19 +51 +64 +6
+93 +19 +108
SI SD SE QS LE LA QL
+70
Energy Cascades All-wave Radiation Balance
The generalized energy budget of earth and its atmosphere (LAUER & BENDIX 2006)
SLIDE 44 II THE CLIMATE SYSTEM Energy and Mass Exchange
Surface Atmosphere Space
+26 +4 +30 +25 -4
+19 +51
+30 +64 +6
+93 +19 +108
SI SD SE QS LE LA QL Q Energy Cascades Radiation Balance
The generalized energy budget of earth and its atmosphere (LAUER & BENDIX 2006)
SLIDE 45 Q = net all-wave radiation balance [W·m-2], QS = short-wave radiation balance [W·m-2], QL = long-wave radiation balance [W·m-2], SI = direct solar radiation [W·m-2], SD = diffuse short-wave beam [W·m-2], SE = reflected short-wave radiation [W·m-2], α = albedo, LE = long-wave radiation of the earth’s surface [W·m-2], LA = downward atmospheric long-wave radiation [W·m-2] Average annual radiation balance of the Earth‘s surface Radiation Balance and Energy Budget Equations
II THE CLIMATE SYSTEM Energy and Mass Exchange
E A D I E A L D I E D I S L S
L L S S Q L L Q and S S S S S Q with Q Q Q 1 1
SLIDE 46
Radiation Balance Spatial Distribution
II THE CLIMATE SYSTEM Energy and Mass Exchange
Monthly mean net radiation [W/m²] in January (http://cimss.ssec.wisc.edu)
SLIDE 47
Radiation Balance Spatial Distribution
II THE CLIMATE SYSTEM Energy and Mass Exchange
Monthly mean net radiation [W/m²] in July (http://cimss.ssec.wisc.edu)
SLIDE 48
Radiation Balance Isopleths of Net-radiation
II THE CLIMATE SYSTEM Energy and Mass Exchange
highest altitude of the sun lowest altitude of the sun
SLIDE 49 Energy Cascades Radiation Balance and Energy Budget
II THE CLIMATE SYSTEM Energy and Mass Exchange
Surface Atmosphere Space
+26 +4 +30 +25 -4 +30 +64 +6
+93 +19 +108
SI SD SE QS LE LA QL Q
+23 +7
QE QH
The generalized energy budget of earth and its atmosphere (LAUER & BENDIX 2006)
SLIDE 50
The generalized energy budget of earth and its atmosphere (McKNIGHT & HESS 2008)
Energy Cascades Radiation Balance and Energy Budget
II THE CLIMATE SYSTEM Energy and Mass Exchange
SLIDE 51 Q = net all-wave radiation balance [W·m-2], QS = short-wave radiation balance [W·m-2], QL = long-wave radiation balance [W·m-2], SI = direct solar radiation [W·m-2], SD = diffuse short-wave beam [W·m-2], SE = reflected short-wave radiation [W·m-2], α = albedo, LE = long-wave radiation of the earth’s surface [W·m-2], LA = downward atmospheric long- wave radiation [W·m-2] Average annual radiation balance of the Earth‘s surface Q = net all-wave radiation balance = energy budget [W·m-2], QH = sensible heat flux [W·m-2], QE = latent heat flux [W·m-2], QG = heat conduction to or from the underlying ground [W·m-2] Energy balance of the Earth‘s surface Radiation Balance and Energy Budget Equations
II THE CLIMATE SYSTEM Energy and Mass Exchange
G E H
Q Q Q Q
E A D I E A L D I E D I S L S
L L S S Q L L Q and S S S S S Q with Q Q Q 1 1
SLIDE 52 Forms of Energy and Energy Transmission Conduction
II THE CLIMATE SYSTEM Energy and Mass Exchange
QG = heat flux [W·m-2], k = thermal conductivity [W·m-1·K-1], T1 = temperature [K] at depth z1 [m], T2 = temperature [K] at depth z2 [m], ∆T = temperature differences [K], ∆z = thickness or vertical depth (of the ground layer) [m] Heat conduction (ground heat flux) Thermal properties of selected Materials z T k z z T T k QG
2 1 2 1
21
SLIDE 53 QH = sensible heat flux [W·m-2], Ca = heat capacity of air = 1200 [J·m-3·K-1], k = Karman’s constant = 0.4, T1 = temperature [K] at level z1 [m], T2 = temperature [K] at level z2 [m], u1 = wind speed [m·s-1] at level z1 [m], u2 = wind [m·s-1] at level z2 [m] Sensible heat flux (gradient method) Forms of Energy and Energy Transmission Convection
II THE CLIMATE SYSTEM Energy and Mass Exchange
2 1 2 1 2 1 2 2
ln z z u u T T k C Q
a H
Latent heat flux (gradient method) QE = latent heat flux [W·m-2], Lv = latent heat of vaporization [J·kg-1], k = Karman’s constant = 0.4, u1 = wind velocity [m·s-1] at level z1 [m], u2 = wind velocity [m·s-1] at level z2 [m], a1 = absolute humidity [kg·m-3] at level z1 [m], a2 = absolute humidity [kg·m-3] at level z2 [m]
2 1 2 1 2 1 2 2
ln z z a a u u k L Q
v E
SLIDE 54 Q = net all-wave radiation balance [W·m-2], QS = short-wave radiation balance [W·m-2], QL = long-wave radiation balance [W·m-2], SI = direct solar radiation [W·m-2], SD = diffuse short-wave beam [W·m-2], SE = reflected short-wave radiation [W·m-2], α = albedo, LE = long-wave radiation of the earth’s surface [W·m-2], LA = downward atmospheric long- wave radiation [W·m-2] Average annual radiation balance of the Earth‘s surface Q = net all-wave radiation balance = energy budget [W·m-2], QH = sensible heat flux [W·m-2], QE = latent heat flux [W·m-2], QG = heat conduction to or from the underlying ground [W·m-2] Energy balance of the Earth‘s surface Radiation Balance and Energy Budget Equations
II THE CLIMATE SYSTEM Energy and Mass Exchange
G E H
Q Q Q Q
E A D I E A L D I E D I S L S
L L S S Q L L Q and S S S S S Q with Q Q Q 1 1
SLIDE 55 Examples of the diur- nal course of compo- nents of the energy budget (GEBHARDT et al. 2007) a) Coniferous forest near Freiburg/Br. – 28.04 - 30.04.1976 b) Desert surface in the Gobi Desert – 11.05 - 31.05.1931 c) Tropical Atlantic with cloudless sky (8°30'N/23°30'W) – 06.07.1974
Energy Budget Examples
II THE CLIMATE SYSTEM Energy and Mass Exchange
Radiation Balance (Q) Latent Heat (QE) Sensible Heat (QH) Storage (QG)
