Chapter 9: Passive Constructions Syntactic Constructions in English - - PowerPoint PPT Presentation

Chapter 9: Passive Constructions

Syntactic Constructions in English Kim and Michaelis (2020)

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1

Introduction

2

The Relationship between Active and Passive

3

Approaches to Passive From Structural Description to Structural Change A Transformational Approach A Construction-Based Approach

4

Prepositional Passives

5

The Get-Passive

6

Conclusion

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Active and passive

One important goal of syntactic analysis is to capture formal and semantic properties common to two or more constructions. (1) a. One of Korea’s most famous poets wrote these lines. (active) b. These lines were written by one of Korea’s most famous

• poets. (passive)

These two sentences are true or false under the same real-world conditions: they both describe the event of writing the lines by one Korean poet. The only difference involves grammatical functions.

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Why passive over active?

It is generally accepted that the passive construction is used for certain discourse motivated reasons. For example, when the person or thing acted upon is what the sentence is about, we tend to use passive. (2) a. Somebody apparently struck the unidentified victim during the early morning hours. b. The unidentified victim was apparently struck during the early morning hours.

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Why passive over active? (cont’d)

In addition, language users prefer passive voice when the identity of the actor is unknown or unimportant. (3) a. Targets can be observed at any angle. b. During the early evening, Saturn is found in the north, while Jupiter rises in the east. Similarly, we use the passive voice in formal, scientific, or technical writing and reports to convey an objective presentation on the events

• f state of affairs being described.

(4) a. I poured 20cc of acid into the beaker. b. About 20cc of acid was poured into the beaker.

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Relationship between active and passive

Grammatical functions and subcategorization: By definition, a transitive verb form such as taken or chosen must have an object. (5) a. John has taken Bill to the library. b. John has chosen Bill for the position. (6) a. *John has taken to the library. b. *John has chosen for the position. Yet, when such verbs are passive, the object NP is necessarily absent from the post-verbal position. (7) a. *The guide has been taken John to the library. b. *The department has been chosen John for the position. (8) a. John has been taken to the library. b. John has been chosen for the position.

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Relationship between active and passive (cont’d)

Apart from the realizations of the two core arguments of a transitive verb, other subcategorization requirements are unchanged in a passive form. (9) a. Pat handed a book to Chris. b. *Pat handed to Chris. c. *Pat handed a book. (10) a. A book was handed to Chris (by Pat). b. *A book was handed (by Pat).

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Relationship between active and passive (cont’d)

Other selectional properties: The selectional properties of the active verb are preserved in a passive sentence. (11) a. They believe it/*Stephen to be easy to annoy Ben. b. They believe there to be a dragon in the wood. (12) a. It/*Stephen is believed to be easy to annoy Ben. b. There is believed to be a dragon in the wood.

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Relationship between active and passive (cont’d)

If the active complement is itself a clause, the subject of the passive verb must also be a clause. (13) a. No one believes/suspects [that he is a fool]. b. [That he is a fool] is believed/suspected by no one. If the postverbal constituent is construed as part of an idiom, so is the subject in the passive. (14) a. They believe the cat to be out of the bag. b. The cat is believed to be out of the bag.

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Relationship between active and passive (cont’d)

Morphosyntactic changes: In addition to changes in argument realization, the passive construction requires the auxiliary verb be, which requires the passive form of the verb. (15) a. Jean drove the car. → The car was driven. b. Jean was driving the car. → The car was being driven. c. Jean will drive the car. → The car will be driven. d. Jean has driven the car. → The car has been driven. e. Jean has been driving the car. → The car has been being driven. f. Jean will have been driving the car. → The car will have been being driven.

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Relationship between active and passive (cont’d)

Semantics: A passive verb preserves the semantic-role assignments

• f its active counterpart.

(16) a. Pat handed Chris a note. b. Chris was handed a note (by Pat). (17) a. TV puts ideas into children’s heads. b. Ideas are put into children’s heads (by TV).

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Sum-up: basic properties of passive

Passive turns the active object into the passive subject; Passive leaves other aspects of the comps value of the active verb unchanged; Passive optionally allows the active subject to be the object in a PP headed by by; Passive makes the appropriate morphological change in the form of the main verb, and requires that this verb be the complement of auxiliary be. Passive preserves the semantics of the verb lexeme.

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From structural description to structural change

(18) Chomsky’s (1957) Passive Formation Construction with Structural Description (SD) and Structural Change (SC):

SD:

X NP Y V NP Z 1

• 2
• 3
• 4
• 5
• 6
• SC:

1 5 3 be 4+en 6 (by 2)

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From structural description to structural change: example

(19) SD: Yesterday, the child really kicked a monkey in the street. X NP Y V NP Z 1

• 2
• 3
• 4
• 5
• 6
• SC:

1 5 3 be 4 + en 6 (by 2) Yesterday, a monkey really was kicked in the street (by the child)

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A transformational approach

A typical transformational approach assuming movement for passive involves the operation. (20) IP NP ¯ I e I VP Past V VP be

• V

NP deceived Bill

• Syntactic Constructions

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Transitive verbs with no corresponding passive counterparts

Once we look at a wider variety of passive patterns, we can see the need to refer to lexical and semantic properties of transitive verbs. First, there are apparently transitive verbs that lack a passive counterpart. (21) a. The model resembles Kim in nearly every detail. b. *Kim is resembled by the model in nearly every detail. (22) a. The coat does not fit you. b. *You are not fitted by the coat.

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Only passives with no corresponding active counterparts

By contrast, there are verbs like bear, rumor, say and repute, that are used only in the passive. (23) a. I was born in 1970. b. It is rumored that he is on his way out. c. John is said to be rich. d. He is reputed to be a good scholar. (24) a. *My mother bore me in 1970. b. *Everyone rumored that he was on his way out. c. *They said him to be rich. d. *They reputed him to be a good scholar.

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Non-patient passive subjects

In addition, the subject in a passive sentence need not be a patient. (25) a. Not much is known about the effects of these medications

• n children.

b. It was alleged by the victim that he was kidnapped. c. That laughter is the sign of joy is doubted by no one.

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Passive construction

(26) passive construction:

• v-tran-lxm

arg-st XPi, 2 YP, . . .

• →

    passive-v syn | head | vform pass arg-st 2 YP, . . . ,

• PPi[by]
• 

  

(27) a. They send her to Seoul. b. She is sent to Seoul (by them). (28)

• form send

arg-st NPi, 2 NP, 3 PP[to]

• →

   form sent syn | head | vform pass arg-st 2 NP, 3 PP[to], (PPi[by])   

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Passive construction: example tree

(29) S

• vform fin
• 2 NP

VP    vform fin spr 2 NP comps

• 

  N V    vform fin spr 2 NP comps 5 VP   

5 VP

   vform pass spr 2 NP comps

• 

  She is V    vform pass spr 2 NP comps 3 PP   

3 PP

sent to Seoul

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Lexical entry of the passive auxiliary be

(30)             aux-be-pass form be syn | val     spr 1 NP comps

• 2 VP
• vform

pass spr 1 NP

• 

   arg-st 1 NP, 2 VP            

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CP subject passives

The passive construction can also give rise to sentences whose subject is not an NP but a CP. (31) a. They widely believed [that John was ill]. b. [That John was ill] was widely believed. (32)

• form believe

arg-st NPi, 2 CP

• →

       form believed syn  head

• pos verb

vform pass

• 

 arg-st 2 CP, (PPi)       

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CP subject passives: example tree

(33) S

2 CP

VP

• spr 2

comps

• That John

was ill V

• spr 2

comps

• 5 VP

   vform pass spr 2 comps

• 

  was AdvP VP    vform pass spr 2 comps

• 

  widely V    vform pass spr 2 comps ( 3 )   

3 PP

believed (by them) Syntactic Constructions Chapter 9 23 / 43

Indirect question subject passives

The same account also holds when the complement is an indirect question. (34) a. They have decided [which attorney will give the closing argument]. b. [Which attorney will give the closing argument] has been decided (by them). (35)    form decide syn | head | pos verb arg-st NPi, Sj[que +]    ⇒        form decided syn  head

• pos verb

vform pass

• 

 arg-st Sj[que +], (PPi[by])       

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Indirect question subject passives : example tree

(36) S

1 S[que +]

VP spr 1 Which attorney will give the closing argument V

• spr 1

comps 4

• 4 VP

spr 1 has V

• spr 1

comps 3

• 3 VP

spr 1 been V    vform pass spr 1 S[que +] comps

• 

  decided

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Prepositional passives

In addition to the passivization of an active transitive verb, English allows a ‘prepositional verb’ to undergo passivization. (37) a. You can rely on Ben. b. Ben can be relied on. (38) a. They talked about the scandal for days. b. The scandal was talked about for days.

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Prepositional passives: basic lexical constraints

Such prepositional passives are possible with verbs selecting a PP bearing a specified preposition. (39) a. The plan was approved of by my mother. (My mother approved of the plan.) b. The issue was dealt with promptly. (They dealt with the issue promptly.) c. That’s not what’s asked for. (That’s not what they asked for.) d. This should be attended to immediately. (We should attend to this immediately.) (40) a. *Boston was flown to. (They flew to/near/by Boston.) b. *The capital was gathered near by a crowd of people. (A crowd of people gathered near/at the capital.) c. *The hot sun was played under by the children. (The children played under/near the hot sun.)

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Prepositional passives: adverb placement

There is a contrast between active and passive prepositional verbs with respect to the appearance of an adverb. (41) a. That’s something I would have paid twice for. b. These are the books that we have gone most thoroughly

• ver.

c. They look generally on John as selfish. (42) a. *Everything was paid twice for. b. *Your books were gone most thoroughly over. c. *He is looked generally on as selfish.

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Two possible structures

There are two possible structures that can capture these properties: ternary and reanalysis structures. (43)

VP[pass] V[pass] P PP talked about (by them)

(44) VP[pass] V[pass] PP V[pass] P (by them) talked about

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Evidence for reanalysis structure over ternary structure: gapping

Evidence for the reanalysis comes from gapping. (45) a. Pavarotti relied on Loren and Bond

• n Hepburn.

b. *Pavarotti relied on Loren and Bond Hepburn. c. Loren was relied on by Pavarotti and Hepburn by Bond. d. *Loren was relied on by Pavarotti and Hepburn

• n by

Bond.

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Head-LEX construction and prepositional passive construction

(46) head-lex construction: V → V, X[lex +] (47) prepositional passive construction:

• prep-v

arg-st NPi, PPj[pform 4 ]

• →

       pass-prep-v syn | head | vform pass arg-st

• NPj, P
• lex +

pform 4

• , (PPi[by])
• 

     

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Prepositional passive construction: lexical entries

(48) a. The lawyer looked into the document. b. The document was looked into by the lawyer. (49)

• form look

arg-st NPi, PPj[into]

• →
• form looked

arg-st NPj, P[into], (PPi[by])

• Syntactic Constructions

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Prepositional passive construction: example tree

(50) VP V VP[pass] was V     hd-lex-cxt vform pass comps 3 PP    

3 PP

V

• vform pass

comps 2 P, 3 PP

• 2 P
• lex +

pform into

• by the lawyer

looked into

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Get-passive

The passive constructions we have seen include the copula verb be, but there is another type of passives with the verb get. (51) a. You must come back in spring to see them. The man did; he was fired. b. He got fired by the liberals and re-hired by Fox. Note that be and get passives are not always interchangeable. (52) a. Kim was/*got seen to leave the lab with Dr. Smith. b. He saw Kim get/*be mauled by my brother’s dog.

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Differences between get-passive and be-passive

The first main difference comes from the status of be and get. While the verb be is a typical auxiliary, get is not. This can be observed from the NICE properties. (53) a. He was not fired by the company. b. Was he fired by the company? c. He wasn’t fired by the company. d. John was fired by the company, and Bill was too.

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Differences between get-passive and be-passive (cont’d)

(54) a. *He got not fired by the company. b. *Got he fired by the company? c. *He gotn’t fired by the company. d. *John was fired by the company, and Bill got too. (55) a. He didn’t get fired by the company. b. Did he get fired by the company? c. He didn’t get fired by the company. d. John got fired by the company, and Bill did too.

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Differences between get-passive and be-passive

The subject referent of the get-passive is understood to be affected by the action in question. (56) a. The letter was written by you and no one else. b. *The letter got written by you and no one else. This means that the preexistence of the subject is a necessary condition. (57) The band/?TV programme/?Volcanic eruption got watched by thousands.

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Differences between get-passive and be-passive

The ‘affected’ condition can also account for the awkwardness of the following examples: (58) a. *Bull-headed man got feared by some. b. *The child got followed by a little lamb. c. *He got seen by the teacher. d. *His campaign got invented by a hostile press. All these examples, possible with the be-passive, have verbs that are either stative or do not entail a change of state.

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Lexical entry of get

(59)                      form get syn | head | aux – arg-st

• NPj, VP

    spr NPj vform pass ind s1    

• sem

      ind s0 rels    pred get-affected-rel pat j sit s1                              

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Get-passive: example tree

(60)

S

2 NP

VP

• spr 2 NP

comps

• I

V

• spr 2 NP

comps 4 VP

• 4 VP

   vform pass spr 2 NPi comps

• 

  got V    vform pass spr NPi comps 3 PP   

3 PP

fired by the company

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Differences between get-passive and be-passive

It is not natural for the complement of get to be a stative participle. (61) a. It was/*got believed that the letter was a forgery. b. He is/*got feared by most of the staff. c. Joe hasn’t been/*got seen for years. d. The teacher was/*got liked by everybody. The effect conveyed by a get-passive sentence need not be negative. (62) a. He got promoted multiple times. b. The story got published and won some recognition.

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Conclusion

In this chapter, we offered a detailed description of the formal properties of English passive constructions. Passive sentences are systematically related to active sentences. After reviewing core properties of the passive constructions in English, we discussed the major features of prior transformational analyses and the empirical problems that prevent them from capturing regularities, as well as peculiarities of English passive constructions.

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Conclusion (cont’d)

To avoid analytical problems arising from transformational analyses, we instead suggested a construction-based analysis of be-passives that refers to multiple grammatical properties, including those related to grammatical categories, grammatical functions, and semantic/pragmatic constraints. We also attempted to extend the analysis to account for prepositional passive as well as get-passive constructions, both of which behave quite differently from the typical be-passive constructions. Importantly, we have seen that the construction-based framework

• ffers a way to account for relationships of ‘family resemblance’ that

unite seemingly divergent constructions.

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