(BRM) GDM 405 By Nicola Nakashima Topics Project Proposal - - PowerPoint PPT Presentation

Business Research Methods (BRM) – GDM 405

By Nicola Nakashima

Topics

• Project Proposal Assessment brief
• How to generate ideas for a

proposal

• Introduction to Business Research

Methods

BRM: Learning Outcomes

On successful completion of this module, the student will be able to:

• 1. Understand the key components of an academic

research.

• 2. Construct a well-reasoned research question.
• 3. Develop an appropriate research design.
• 4. Conduct a literature review.
• 5. Understand qualitative and quantitative

research methodology.

• 6. Understand techniques used to interpret data.
• 7. Develop a well-structured research proposal.

GDM 405: BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS

• This module is assessed through the submission of a

project proposal for the professional project.

• You are required to receive guidance from a

designated research supervisor.

• On successful completion of the proposal, you may

commence your professional project for the module: GDM 406.

• A project proposal is a detailed plan for conducting

your research project.

• To help you understand the process of developing your

proposal, it is useful to begin with an overview of what the final proposal should look like.

DEVELOPING THE PROJECT PROPOSAL

• Step 1 – Selecting your research

topic/research problem

• Step 2 – Formulating the research objectives
• Step 3 – Conducting a preliminary literature

review

• Step 4 – Selecting the data collection and

analysis methods

• Step 5 – Writing the proposal using the

specified structure

PROJECT PROPOSAL GUIDELINES

• TITLE
• TABLE OF CONTENTS
• INTRODUCTION
• INITIAL LITERATURE REVIEW
• PROPOSED METHODOLOGY
• REFERENCES
• APPENDIX

TITLE & CONTENT PAGE

• TITLE:
• TABLE OF CONTENTS:

The title must be brief and give an indication of the main topic of your project. The title must be related to the Business Management Discipline. The Table of Contents is expected to contain all the required headings and sub-headings.

INTRODUCTION (400 words)

The purpose of the project and your reasons for selecting this project must be clearly stated. You may provide the research question/academic aim and the

• bjectives. Academic objectives

should be linked with your literature review, primary research, and conclusions and recommendations intended to be made upon completion of the project.

• Overview/Rationale
• Organisation/

industry background along with the research problem

• Research

question/academic aim

• Objectives

INITIAL LITERATURE REVIEW (1000 words)

Describe your theoretical framework and present an initial review of some of the literature relating to your topic. Students are expected to use peer-reviewed journal articles and published text books.

PROPOSED METHODOLOGY (600 words)

• Research strategy

& methodological choice

• Population &

sample

• Data collection
• Research ethics

You must explain how you will investigate your chosen topic. Outline your proposed research methods and the sampling approach. Justify your reasons for these approaches and include evidence of reading and reference on research methods.

Reference list & Appendices

• Provide a minimum of 15 references and the

full list of sources referenced in the proposal using the Harvard Referencing Style.

• Indicate a time plan for completing your

project

PEER REVIEWED JOURNAL ATICLES (Open Access)

• Sage open
• Emerald Insight open
• Elsevier open
• Springer open
• Taylor and Francis open
• Proquest open
• JSTOR open
• EBSCO
• Google Scholar

Appendix Sample: Plan for Project (Gantt Chart)

Generating Ideas for your Project Proposal

Activity (1)

• What is your current profession? Or future

profession?

• Do you work in marketing, finance,
• perations, or HR? Or which area would you

like to work in the future

• Which industry do you work for? Or which

industry would you like to work for in the future?

Activity (2)

• Are there any issues in the organisation that

you work for? Example: Leadership, management, teams, marketing, culture, work life balance, motivation, turn over, recruitment, innovation, social media, celebrity endorsement, career development

Activity (3)

• Are these issues specific to a department or

the whole organisation?

• Which areas can be improved?
• Are there any potential benefits from

improving?

Selecting an Area to investigate

• Step 1: Select a main academic area under

business management (Ex: Leadership, Management, Innovation, HR, Finance, Marketing, Operations, Strategic Management,

• Org. Behvaiour )
• Step 2: Select a sub-academic area from your

main academic area (Ex: Transformational leadership, employee engagement, social media.

• Step 3: Specify an industry (Ex: Service sector –

Medical care, hospitality/ Manufacturing - apparel)

Selecting an Area to investigate

• Step 4: Specify the type of company (Ex:

Multinational, family owned, SME)

• Step 5: Specify the type of people you would

like to investigate (Ex: employees, customers, general population, millennials, baby boomers)

• Step 6: Do you think your idea/problem area

is quantifiable or not? (Ex: questionnaires) or is it qualitative in nature (Ex: interviews or focus group studies)

Selecting an Area to investigate

• Step 7:
• Once the main academic area, sub-academic

area, industry, type of people are narrowed down, you need to fine previous research done in a similar setting

Selecting Journal Articles

• Journal articles should be peer-reviewed
• Topic should be the same as your intended

research proposal

• Main academic areas and sub-academic areas

should match

• Industry should be the same
• Type of people they investigated should be the

same as what you intend to do

• Where possible should be from Sri Lanka or

South East Asia.

Project title or Research question

• Do background reading on:
• How to develop a research title
• How to develop a research question
• Use no more than 11 words for the title
• Indicate your topic in the title
• Try to indicate what type of study it is

Project title samples

• 1. “How does consumer behaviour impact brand

equity in the hotel industry of Sri Lanka? A case study on Cinnamon Lakeside” 2. “An investigation

• n

the sources

• f

sustainable competitive advantage: A descriptive study on the apparel manufacturing industry of Sri Lanka”

Aims & Objectives

Academic Aims & Objectives

• Aims are what you hope to achieve by the end
• f your dissertation. They should be clear and

concise statements, but expressed in general terms.

• Objectives are how you intend to achieve those
• aims. They will include the specific means of

answering the research question that you have posed and details of the key issues involved.

26

S.M.A.R.T Objectives

• Specific – avoid general statements, include detail about

what you are going to do.

• Measureable – there should be a definable outcome.
• Achievable – be realistic in what you hope to cover, don’t

attempt too much. A less ambitious but completed

• bjective is better than an over-ambitious one that you

cannot possible achieve.

• Realistic – think about logistics. Are you practically able to

do what you wish to do? Factors to consider include: time; expense; skills; access to sensitive information; participant’s consent; etc.

• Time constrained – be aware of the time-frame of the

project.

27

Academic Objectives

• Objective 1 & 2 should be on the literature

review to be conducted

• Objective 3 should be on the primary research

to be conducted

• Objective 4 should be on the primary data

findings and conclusions you will make

• If you wish to make recommendations,

indicate them in the 4th objective.

Sample (1) - Academic Aim and Objectives

• The aim of this project is to investigate and identify the influence
• f CSR on EE of LA. The objectives of this study are as follows.

– To review literature to explore the concepts of CSR and EE and their importance to organisations; – To critically review the literature to investigate the influence of CSR on EE in the apparel industry; – To undertake primary research using questionnaires distributed to the employees of LA to identify the influence of CSR on EE; – To analyse the findings of the primary research and establish conclusions to provide recommendations needed for LA in practicing CSR which may help create positive influences on EE.

Business Research Methods

Underlying issues of data collection and analysis

The research ‘onion’

Saunders et al, (2008) Figure 4.1 The research ‘onion’

Terminology

Methods - The techniques and procedures used to obtain data Methodology - The theory of how research should be undertaken

Saunders et al. (2009)

Some ways in which the term “research” is used wrongly

• Just collecting facts or information with no

clear purpose;

• Reassembling and reordering facts or

information without interpretation

• As a term to get your product or idea

noticed and respected.

The nature of research

Definition:

‘Something that people undertake in order to find things out in a systematic way, thereby increasing their knowledge’

Saunders et al. (2009)

Characteristics:

• Data are collected systematically
• Data are interpreted systematically
• There is a clear purpose to find things out

What does it suggest “systemically” and to “to find out things”

• “systematic” suggests that research is

based on logical relationships and not just beliefs. “to find out things” suggests there are a multiplicity of possible purposes of your

• research. These may include describing,

explaining, understanding, criticizing, and analyzing.

Features of business and management research (1)

• Managers draw on knowledge from other disciplines
• Managers are more likely to allow access if they see

commercial or personal advantage

• Managers now tend to be as educated as the researchers
• Managers require research to have some practical

consequence

Easterby-Smith et al. (2008)

Features of business and management research (2)

Basic and applied research

Sources: authors’ experience; Easterby-Smith et al. (2008); Hedrick et al. (1993) Figure 1.1 Basic and applied research

The research process (1)

Stages of the research process

• Formulating and clarifying a topic
• Reviewing the literature
• Designing the research
• Collecting data
• Analysing data
• Writing up

Based on Figure 1.2: Saunders et al. (2009)

The research process (2)

Factors to consider

• The impact of your personal feelings and beliefs
• Access to data
• Time and other resources
• Validity and reliability of the data
• Ethical issues

Conducting a Literature Review

Reasons for reviewing the literature

• To conduct a ‘preliminary’ search of existing

material

• To organise valuable ideas and findings
• To identify other research that may be in progress
• To generate research ideas
• To develop a critical perspective

The literature review process

Figure 3.1 The literature review process

The Critical Review (1)

Approaches used

Deductive - Develops a conceptual framework from the literature which is then tested using the data Inductive - Explores the data to develop theories which are then tested against the literature

The Critical Review (2)

Key purposes

• To further refine research questions and objectives
• To discover recommendations for further research
• To avoid repeating work already undertaken
• To provide insights into strategies and techniques

appropriate to your research objectives

Based on Gall et al. (2006)

Adopting a critical perspective (1)

Skills for effective reading

• Previewing
• Annotating
• Summarising
• Comparing and contrasting

Harvard College Library (2006)

Adopting a critical perspective (2)

The most important skills are

• The capacity to evaluate what you read
• The capacity to relate what you read to other

information

Wallace and Wray (2006)

Adopting a critical perspective (3)

Questions to ask yourself

Why am I reading this? What is the author trying to do in writing this? How convincing is is this? What use can I make of this reading?

Adapted from Wallace and Wray (2006)

The key to a critical literature review

• Demonstrate that you have read, understood and

evaluated your material

• Link the different ideas to form a cohesive and

coherent argument

• Make clear connections to your research
• bjectives and the subsequent empirical material

Saunders et al. (2009)

49

The Research Process ‘Onion’ (Saunders et al., 2012)

Research approaches Research strategies Time horizon Data collection methods

Research philosophy

Positivism Phenomenology Deductive Inductive

• Experiment
• Survey
• Case study
• Grounded theory
• Ethnography
• Action research

Cross sectional Longitudinal Sampling, secondary data,

• bservation, interviews,

questionnaires

50

Research Philosophy

According to Saunders et al (2012):

• Research philosophy “relates to the

development of knowledge and the nature of that knowledge” (p. 127).

• Contains important assumptions about the

way in which you view the world.

51

Types of Research Philosophy (Saunders et al., 2012)

Pragmatism Positivism Realism Interpretivism Ontology  External  Multiple  Chose the best approach to answer the questions  External  Objective  Independent of social actors  Objective  Exists independent of human thoughts  Socially constructed  Subjective  Multiple  May change Epistemology  Observable phenomenon  Subjective meanings provides acceptable knowledge  Only observable phenomenon can provide useful information  Observable phenomena provides credible data, facts  Focus on explaining within a context/s  Subjective meanings and social phenomenon  Focus on a details of a situation  Seeks for reality behind these details Axiology  Values play a large role in results interpretation  The research adopts a both

• bjective and subjective

perspective  Research is undertaken in a value free way  Researcher is independent of the data  Researcher maintains an objective stance  Research is value laden  The researcher is biased by world views  Research is value bound  Researcher is part of what is being researched  Cannot be separated  Subjective Data collection techniques most

• ften used

 Mixed or multiple methods designs  Quantitative  Qualitative  Highly structured  Large samples  Quantitative  Methods must fit the chosen subject  Quantitative or qualitative  Small samples  In-depth investigations  Qualitative 52

Research Approaches

Deduction: theory and hypothesis are developed and tested Induction: data are collected and a theory developed from the data analysis

53

Deduction 5 sequential stages of testing theory

• Deducing a hypothesis
• Expressing the hypothesis operationally
• Testing the operational hypothesis
• Examining the specific outcome of the enquiry
• Modifying the theory (if necessary)

Adapted from Robson (2002)

54

Characteristics of Deduction

• Explaining causal relationships between variables
• Establishing controls for testing hypotheses
• Independence of the researcher
• Concepts operationalised for quantitative

measurement

• Generalisation

55

Induction Building theory by –

• Understanding the way human build their world
• Permitting alternative explanations of what’s

going on

• Being concerned with the context of events
• Using more qualitative data
• Using a variety of data collection methods

56

Choosing your research approach

The right choice of approach helps you to

• Make a more informed decision about the

research design

• Think about which strategies will work for your

research topic

• Adapt your design to cater for any constraints

Adapted from Easterby-Smith et al. (2008)

57

Combining research approaches

Things worth considering

• The nature of the research topic
• The time available
• The extent of risk
• The research audience – managers and markers

58

Research Strategy

• Research strategy is concerned with the

plan of how the researcher will answer the research objectives (Saunders et al., 2012).

• It is the methodological link between the

research philosophy and data collection methods to analyse the data (Denzin & Lincoln, 2005).

59

Research Strategies

Experiment Action research Grounded theory Survey Ethnography Case study Archival research

Research Strategies

Survey: key features

• Popular in business research
• Perceived as authoritative
• Allows collection of quantitative data
• Data can be analysed quantitatively
• Samples need to be representative
• Gives the researcher independence
• Structured observation and interviews can be used

Research Strategies

Case Study: key features

• Provides a rich understanding of a real life context
• Uses and triangulates multiple sources of data

A case study can be categorised in four ways and based on two dimensions:

single case v. multiple case holistic case v. embedded case

Yin (2003)

Types of Strategies

Research strategy Characteristics Survey  Associated with deductive research approach  Answer ‘what’, ‘where’, ‘how much’ and ‘how many’ questions Archival research  Uses administrative records and documents as sources of data Case study  Aims to answer ‘why’, ‘what’ and ‘how’ questions  May use quantitative or qualitative methods Action research  This is an iterative process to develop answers to the real life

• rganisational problems

Grounded theory  This is developed as a response to the extreme of positivism  Develops theoretical explanations of social interactions

63

Types of Data

Data collection method Benefits Limitations Primary data  Specific to the research conducted  Wider opportunity for findings  Enhanced knowledge and insights  Custom-made research results  Limits international research scope  Requires heavy applications of procedures  Questions the quality of and scope

• f information

 High time and resource commitment Secondary data  Comparatively efficient  Saves time and money  Enables access to broader research  Wider opportunities for conclusions  May not be aligned with the research objectives  Uncertainty and hence validity of research

64

Research Methods

65

Multiple research methods

Figure 5.4 Research choices

Quantitative and Qualitative Methods

• Quantitative methods

– Generates data expressed numerically – Primary data is collected as numbers or converted into numbers by coding these prior to analysis – Analysis aims to find statistically significant results

• Qualitative methods

– Generates data expressed in words, analyzed conceptually – Data collected is grouped into categories or themes – Provide a ‘richer’ descriptive collection of data

67

Summary of Methodology (Walliman, 2011)

Research method Description Advantages Limitations Qualitative  Focus on collecting data relevant to feelings, emotions and ideas  Data is more descriptive  Can explore attitudes, behaviours and experiences  Process oriented  Cannot be accurately measured and counted  Unstructured  Lack of transparency Quantitative  Focus on numerical aspects of data  Structured method for data collection  Easy to analyse  Can develop relationship between variables  Can collect data from a large number of sample  Logical approach  May fail to provide generalisation by comparison of properties and contexts of individual organism  Fails to understand respondent’s point of view

68

Qualitative methods

• Reasons to chose qualitative methods should

be based on the methodological stance and the aim(s) of the research project

• Vehicle of generating a vast array of rich data
• Expertise is needed in the design, execution

and analysis of the interviews

What is an Interview?

• An interview is a purposeful discussion between two
• r more people (Khan & Cannell, 1957).
• The nature of any interview should be consistent

with your research aim and objectives, the purpose

• f your research and the research strategy that you

have adopted.

Advantages of Interviews

• Free from disturbances.
• Increased accuracy of the information

collected through the respondents.

• The ability to capture social dynamics.
• Respondents could be more comfortable

to interact with confidence.

Disadvantages of Interviews

• Requires a skilled person to conduct an

interview.

• The interviewer should be fully aware of

the research.

• Time consuming.
• Resource intensive.

Types of Interviews

• There are 3 categories
• 1. Unstructured or in-depth interviews
• 2. Structured interviews
• 3. Semi-structured interviews

Unstructured or In-depth Interviews

• A situation where the interviewer doesn’t

enter the interview setting with a planned sequence of questions to be asked of the respondent.

• The

main

• bjective

is to bring some preliminary issues to the surface so that the researcher can determine what variable need further in-depth investigation.

Unstructured or In-depth Interviews

• Important

in clarifying the “broad problem area” and eventually to determine the real problem.

• Helps to understand the situation in

totality.

• The interviewee is given the opportunity

to talk freely about events, behaviour and beliefs in relation to the topic area.

Structured Interviews

• Structured

interviews are those conducted when it is known at the

• utset

what information is needed.

• The interviewer has a list of pre-determined

and standardized questions to be asked from the respondents either personally, through the telephone or via internet (example: Skype).

• Alternatively

called as “Interviewer- administered questionnaires”.

Structured Interviews

• The questions are likely to focus on factors

that had surfaced during the unstructured interviews and are considered relevant to the problem.

• Sometimes, however based on the necessity
• f the situation, the experienced researcher

might take a lead from a respondent’s answer and ask other relevant questions not

• n the interview protocol.

Semi-Structured Interviews

• In semi-structured interviews, the research

will have a list of themes and questions to be covered, although these may vary from interview to interview.

• The order of

questions may also be varied depending on the flow of the conversation.

Semi-Structured Interviews

• In contrast, additional questions may be

required to further explore research questions and objectives given the nature of events.

Questioning

• There are main 3 types of questions that can

be used during semi-structured and in-depth interviews.

• 1. Open questions
• 2. Probing questions
• 3. Specific and closed questions

Open Questions

• An open question is designed to encourage

the interviewee to provide an extensive and developmental answer, and may be used to reveal the attitudes or obtain facts.

• Encourage the interviewees to reply as they

wish.

• An open question is likely to start with,
• r

include, ‘what’, ‘how’ or ‘why’.

Open Questions

Example: Why did the organization introduce its marketing strategy? How has cooperate strategy changed over the past five years?

Probing Questions

• Probing questions may be worded like open questions

but request a particular focus or direction. Example: How would you evaluate the success of this new marketing strategy? What external factors caused the corporate strategy to change?

Probing Questions

• Probing questions may also be used to seek

an explanation where you do not understand the interviewee’s meaning or where the response does not reveal the reasoning involved.

Example: What do you mean by “bumping” as a means to help to secure volunteers for redundancy?

Probing Questions

• The use of reflection may also help to probe a
• theme. i.e. Where you will reflect a statement

made by the interviewee by paraphrasing their words.

Example: Why don’t you think that the employees understand the need of advertising?

Probing Questions

• Where an open question does not reveal a

relevant response, you may also probe the area of interest by using a supplementary question that finds a way of rephrasing the

• rganizational question.

Specific and Closed Questions

• The questions that are used to obtain specific

information or to confirm a fact of opinion.

• Commonly use in structured interviews.

Example: How many people respond to the customer survey? Did you lose money?

Preparation

• The key to successful interview is careful

preparation.

• When using unstructured interviews the Five

Ps are a useful mantra: “ Prior Planning Prevents Poor performance”.

Quantitative Data

• Main types of surveys:

(1) Mail/postal (2) Phone (3) Face-to-face (4) Internet

Surveys for Obtaining Data

• Provides a quantifiable measurement of

relationships, feelings or desires

• Widely used method in Marketing, Finance,

HR and Operational Research

Surveys

Data Collection Designing a Questionnaire

What is a Questionnaire?

• A questionnaire is a series of questions

asked from individuals to obtain statistically useful information about a given topic.

• When properly constructed and responsibly

administered, questionnaires become a vital instrument by which statements can be made about specific groups or people or entire populations.

Questionnaires

• Questionnaires are one of the most widely

used methods of collecting data especially in business and management research

• It is a mechanism of recording answers by

respondents to questions raised by researchers

• It could also be an interview in which

questions are asked either in person or over the phone.

Questionnaire

• They are a valuable method of collecting

a wide range of information from a large number of individuals, often referred to as respondents.

• The design of your questionnaire will

affect the response rate and the reliability and validity of the data you collect.

Questionnaire

• The response rate, the

reliability and the validity can be maximized by:

• Careful design of individual questions
• Clear and pleasing layout the questionnaire
• Lucid explanation of

the purpose of the questionnaire

• Pilot testing
• Carefully planned and executed administration

Advantages of Questionnaires

• Non-bias responses can be collected.
• Data obtained through structured

questionnaires can be easily generalised to the sample.

• Data can be collected from a large number
• f respondents.
• Less time consuming.
• Less resources consuming.

Disadvantages of Questionnaires

• The risk of non-response.
• Unable to capture social dynamics.
• The respondent have very minimal
• pportunities to clarify certain questions

and its context.

Importance of Pilot Testing

Pilot test will provide following information,

• How long the questionnaire took to complete
• The clarity of instruction
• Which, if any, questions were unclear or ambiguous
• Which, if any, questions the respondent felt uneasy

about answering

• Whether in their opinion there were any major topic
• missions
• Whether the layout was clear and attractive
• Any other comments

Things to do after Pilot testing

• Amend the questions according to the

feedback received

• Insert a copy of the pilot questionnaire or

interview questions in an appendix

• Demonstrate how the pilot test helped you

refine your questionnaire/interview questions

Questionnaire Relevance and Accuracy

• Relevance and accuracy are the two basic criteria

a questionnaire must meet if it is to achieve the researcher’s purpose.

• A questionnaire is said to be relevant if;
• No unnecessary information is collected
• Information that is needed to solve the research

problem is obtained.

• When planning the questionnaire design, it is

essential to think about possible omissions.

Questionnaire Relevance and Accuracy

• Accuracy means that the information is reliable

and valid.

• Respondents tend to be most cooperative when

the subject of the research is interesting.

• If questions are not lengthy, difficult to answer,
• r ego threatening, there is higher probability of
• btaining unbiased answers.
• Question wording and sequence substantially

influence accuracy.

Major Decisions to be Made in Designing a Questionnaire

• 1. What should be asked?
• 2. How should each question to be phrased?
• 3. In what sequence should the question be

arranged?

• 4. What questionnaire layout will best serve the

research objectives?

• 5. How should the questionnaire be pretested?

Does the questionnaire need to be revised?

What should be asked?

• The research aim will indicate which type of

information must be collected.

• Different types of questions may be better at
• btaining certain types of information than
• thers.

Types of Questions

Phrasing Questions

• There are many ways to phrase questions

and many standard question formats have been developed in previous research studies.

• There are 3 main question formats namely;
• 1. Open ended response questions
• 2. Fixed-alternative questions (Close-ended

questions)

• 3. Attitude Rating Scales

Open-Ended Response Questions

• A question that poses some problem and

asks the respondent to answer in his/her

• wn words.
• Thus, open ended questions are free-

answer questions.

Example:

• What things do you like most about your job?
• Do you think that there are some ways in which

life in Sri Lanka is getting better? How is that?

Open-Ended Response Questions

Advantages:

 Most beneficial when the researcher is conducting exploratory research, especially if the range of responses is not known.  Can be used to learn what words and phrases people spontaneously give to free-response questions.  By gaining free and uninhabited responses, a researcher may find some unanticipated reaction toward the topic.  Constitutes good first questions, as they allow respondents to warm up the questioning process.

Open-Ended Response Questions

Disadvantages

• As respondents’ answers are some what

unique, there is some difficulty in categorizing and summarizing the answers.

• Interviewers’ biasness may influence

the responses.

Open-Ended Response Questions

Disadvantages:

• Takes time to administer
• Comparatively difficult to record responses
• Difficulty in coding – due to multiple

responses

• Non respondent to certain questions will

erode the ability to generate meaningful insights

Fixed-Alternative Questions

• A question in which the respondent is

given specific limited alternative responses and asked to choose the

• ne closest to his/her own viewpoint.

Example:

• Did you work overtime last week?

Yes No

Fixed-Alternative Questions

Example: How much of your shopping for household items do you do in warehouse club stores? Would you say: All of it ___ Most of it ___ About half of it ___ About one-quarter of it ___ Less than one-quarter of it ___

Fixed-Alternative Questions

• There are several categories of Fixed

Alternative Questions: (a) Simple-dichotomy questions (b) Determinant choice questions (c) Frequency determination questions (d) Checklist questions

Simple-dichotomy questions

A fixed alternative question that requires the respondent to choose one or two alternatives. Example: Did you make any long distance calls last week? Yes No

Determinant choice questions

A type of fixed alternative question that requires a respondent to choose

• ne

(and

• nly
• ne)

response from among several possible alternatives.

Example: Compared to 10 years ago, would you say that the quality of most products made in Japan is higher, about the same or not as good? Higher ____ About the same _____ Not as good _____

Frequency determination question

A type of fixed alternative question that asks for an answer about general frequency of

• ccurrence.

Example: How frequently do you watch the MTV channel? Every day -------------------------- 5-6 times a week -------------------------- 2-4 times a week -------------------------- Once a week -------------------------- Less than once a week ------------------------- Never -------------------------

Checklist Questions

A type of fixed alternate question that allows the respondent to provide multiple answers to single question.

Checklist Questions

Example: Please check which of the following sources of information about investments you regularly use, if any. .... Personal advice of your broker(s) .... Brokerage newsletters .... Brokerage research reports .... Investment advisory service(s) .... Conversations with other investors .... Reports on the internet .... None of these .... Other ( please specify) ..........................................

Fixed-Alternative Questions

Advantages:

• Requires less interviewer skills
• Takes less time
• Easier for the respondent to answer
• Standardizing alternative responses to a

question provides comparability of answers which facilitates coding, tabulating and ultimately interpreting the data.

What to consider

• There

should not be any

• verlapping

among categories

• r

in

• ther

words alternatives should be mutually exclusive.

• Most questionnaires include a mixture of
• pen-ended and closed questions.
• Each form has unique benefits; in addition,

a change of pace can eliminate respondent boredom and fatigue.

Attitude Rating Scales

• There are 7 major attitude scales:

(1) Simple Attitude Scales (2) Category Scales (3) Likert Scales (4) Semantic Differential (5) Numerical Scales (6) Constant Sum Scales (7) Graphic Rating Scales

Simple Attitude Scales

• Most basic form.
• Attitude scaling requires that an individual agree or

disagree with a statement or respond to a single question.

Example: Think of your present work. What is it like most of the time? Circle YES if it describes your work Circle NO if it does NOT describes your work Circle ? If you cannot decide Fascinating YES NO ? Routine YES NO ? Satisfying YES NO ?

Simple Attitude Scales

• Simple attitude scaling may be used

when questionnaires are extremely long, when respondents have little education, or for other specific reasons.

• Because this type of self-rating scale

merely classifies respondents into one of two categories, it has only the properties

• f a nominal scale.

Category Scales

• An attitude scale consisting of several

response categories to provide the respondent with alternative ratings.

Example: How often is your supervisor courteous to you? Never Rarely Sometimes Often Very often

Category Scales

If you could choose, how much longer would you stay at your present job? Less than six months Six months to one year Longer than one year

• Wording is an extremely important factor in the

usefulness of these scales.

Likert Scales

• Developed by American scholar Rensis Likert

(An Organizational Psychologist).

• A measure of attitudes designed to allow

respondents to indicate how strongly they agree or disagree with carefully constructed statements that range from very positive to very negative toward an attitudinal object.

Likert Scales

Example: Mergers and acquisitions provide a faster means of growth than internal expansion.

Strongly Disagree Disagree Uncertain Agree Strongly Agree (1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

Likert Scales

• To measure the attitude, researcher assigns score or

weights to the alternative responses.

• In this example, weights of 5, 4, 3, 2, and 1 are

assigned to the answers. (However, the weights should not be printed on the questionnaire.)

• Because the statement used as an example is

positive toward the attitude, strong agreement indicates the most favourable attitude on the statement, and is assigned a weight of 5.

Likert Scales

• A likert scale may include several scale items

to form an index.

• Each statement is assumed to represent an

aspect of a common attitudinal domain.

• The total score is the summation of the

weights assigned to an individual’s response.

Numerical Scales

• An attitude rating scale similar to a semantic differential

except that it uses numbers instead

• f

verbal descriptions as response options to identify response positions. Example: Now that you’ve had your automobile for about one year, please tell how satisfied you are with your Honda Fit.

Satisfied 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Extremely dissatisfied

Art of Asking Questions

• Items on questionnaire are often unclear

because they are too general.

• Consider

infinite terms such as

• ften,
• ccasional, regular, frequently, many, good,

fair and poor.

• Each of these words have many meanings.

Population & Sampling

What is a Population?

• Population has a broader meaning than the

everyday use of the term

• It is the universe of units the sample will be

selected from

What is a Sample?

• A segmentation of the population selected

for investigation

• A subset of the population
• The method of selection may be based on a

probability or a non-probability approach

Key Terms

• Sampling frame – the listing of all units in

the population from which the sample will be selected.

• Representative sample – a sample that

reflects the population accurately.

Importance of Sampling

• As the target population in research is
• ften large, a sample is used based on a

sampling frame which is a subset of the population that the researcher wishes to investigate

Why use Sampling?

• Get information from large populations with:

– Reduced costs – Reduced field time – Increased accuracy – Enhanced methods

Types of Sampling

• Probability Sample (Representative

Sampling)

• Non-probability Sample (Judgemental

Sampling)

Probability Non- Probability Simple Random Systematic Stratified Random Cluster Multi-stage Quota Purposive Snowball Self- Selection Convenience

Probability Sampling

Probability Sampling

• A sample that has been selected using random

selection so that each unit in the population has a known chance of being selected.

• It is generally assumed that a representative sample

is more likely to be the outcome when this method

• f selection from the population is employed.
• This means that it is possible to achieve objectives

that require to estimate statistically the characteristics of the population from the sample.

The Process of Probability Sampling

• 1. Identify a suitable sampling frame based on your

research objectives.

• 2. Decide on a suitable sample size.
• 3. Select the most appropriate sampling technique.
• 4. Check whether the sample is representative of the

population.

Selecting a Suitable Sample Frame: Probability Sampling

 Sampling frame should be complete, accurate and up to date as much as possible.  An incomplete or inaccurate list means that some cases will have been excluded and so it will be impossible for every case in the population to have a chance of selection.  One should not generalize beyond one’s sampling frame.

Deciding on a Suitable Sample Size – Probability Sampling

 Larger the sample size, lower the likely error in generalizing to the population.  Check the minimum number of samples needed for your research  Research objectives that do not require a statistical estimation may need far smaller samples.

Deciding on a Suitable Sample Size – Probability Sampling

Choice of sampling size should be decided based on,

• Confidence you have in your data- i.e. the level of certainty

that characteristics of the data collected will represent the characteristics of the total population.

• The accuracy required from any estimates made out of the

sample.

• The type of statistical analysis
• The size of the total population

Probability Sampling Types

• Simple random – Each unit of the population has equal

probability of inclusion

• Systematic – Drawing every nth element in the population

starting with a randomly chosen element between 1 and n.

E.g.: If we want a sample of 35 households from a total population

• f 260 houses in a particular locality, then we could sample every

7th house starting from a random number from 1 to 7. Let us say that random No. is 7, then houses numbered 7, 14, 21,28,... and so

• n would be sampled until the 35 hoses are selected.

Stratified Random Sampling

Population is stratified based on a criterion  A process of stratification or segregation, followed by random selection of subjects from each stratum.  Under this process, first the population is divided into mutually exclusive groups that are relevant, appropriate and meaningful in the context of the study.

Stratified Random Sampling

 Then, the sample of members from each stratum can be drawn using either a simple random sampling

• r a systematic sampling procedure.

 The subjects drawn from each stratum can be drawn using either proportionate or disproportionate to the number of elements in the stratum.

Proportionate Stratified Random Sampling

 A stratified sample in which the number of sampling units drawn from each stratum is in proportion to the population size of the of that stratum. E.g.: If an organization employs 10 top managers, 30 middle mangers, 50 lower level managers, 100 supervisors, 500 clerks, and 20 secretaries and a stratified sample of about 140 people is needed for some specific survey, the researcher might decide to include in the sample 20% of members from each stratum. i.e. Members represented in the sample from each stratum will be proportionate to the total No. of elements in the respective strata.

Disproportionate Stratified Random Sampling

 A stratified sample in which the sample size for each stratum is allocated according to analytical considerations.  The number of subjects from each stratum will now be altered while keeping the sample size unchanged. E.g.: The idea here is that 60 clerks might be considered adequate to represent the population of 500 clerks; 7 out of 10 managers at the top level would also be considered and so

• n.

Cluster Sampling

In cluster sampling, the primary sampling unit is not the individual element in the population but a large cluster of elements. In other words, for cluster sampling your sampling frame is the complete list of clusters rather than a complete list of individual cases within a population.

Cluster Sampling Stages

• 1. Choose the cluster grouping for your

sampling frame.

• 2. Number each of the clusters with a

unique number. The first cluster is numbered 0, the second 1 and so on.

• 3. Select your sample using some form of

random sampling discussed above.

Single stage cluster sampling

Division of population into convenient clusters, randomly choosing the required number of clusters as sample subjects, and investigating all the elements in each of the randomly chosen clusters.

Multi stage cluster sampling

If the cluster sampling is carried out in several stages, that is called as “multistage cluster sampling”.

Non-Probability Sampling

Non-Probability Sampling

• Non-probability

sampling is where, the probability of each case being selected from the total population is not known.

• In other words, it is impossible to answer

research questions or to address objectives that require you to make statistical conclusions about the characteristics of the population.

• However, one may still be able to generalize

from non-probability samples about the population, but not on statistical grounds.

Non-Probability Sampling: Purposive/ Judgement Sampling

• Use of your own judgment to select cases that will best enable

you to answer your research question(s) and to meet your

• bjectives.
• This form of sample is often used when working with very small

samples such as in case study research and when one wish to select cases that are particularly informative.

 Subjectivity enters in here, and certain members of the population

will have a smaller or no chance of selection compared to others.

Non-Probability Sampling: Quota Sampling

• A type of stratified sample in which selection of cases within strata is

entirely non-random.

• Normally use for large populations ( Often necessities for sample size of

between 2000 and 5000) and interview surveys.

• To select a quota sample,
• Divide the population into specific groups.
• Calculate a quota for each group based on relevant and available data.
• Select the number of cases in each quota from which the data should

be collected.

• Combine the data collected from quotas to provide the full sample.

Non-Probability Sampling: Snowball Sampling

• Commonly used when it is difficult to identify members of the

desired population.

• The steps involve the following,
• Make contact with the one or two case in the population.
• Ask these cases to identify further cases.
• Ask these new cases to identify further new cases ( and so on.)
• Stop when either no new cases are given or the sample is large as

is manageable.

Non-Probability Sampling: Snowball Sampling

• The main problem is making initial contact.
• Once you have done this, these cases identify further members of

the population, who then identify further members, and so the sample snowballs.

• However, for such samples the problems of bias are huge as

respondents are most likely to identify

• ther

potential respondents who are similar to themselves, resulting in a homogenous sample.

Non-Probability Sampling: Self–Selection Sampling

• This occurs when you allow each case, usually individuals, to

identify their desire to take part in the research.

• Steps involve the following,
• Publicise your need for cases, either by advertising through

appropriate media or by asking them to take part.

• Collect data from those who respond.

Non-Probability Sampling: Convenience Sampling

• Convenience sampling involves selecting randomly those cases

that are easiest to obtain for your sample.

• The sample selection process is continued until your required

sample size has been reached.

• This kind of sampling is prone to bias and influences as the cases

appear in the sample only because of the ease of obtaining them. E.g.: The person interviewed at random in a shopping centre for a television programme

Thank you!