What does it suggest “ systemically ” and to “ to find out things ” • “ systematic ” suggests that research is based on logical relationships and not just beliefs. “ to find out things ” suggests there are a multiplicity of possible purposes of your research. These may include describing, explaining, understanding, criticizing, and analyzing.
Features of business and management research (1) • Managers draw on knowledge from other disciplines • Managers are more likely to allow access if they see commercial or personal advantage • Managers now tend to be as educated as the researchers • Managers require research to have some practical consequence Easterby-Smith et al . (2008)
Features of business and management research (2) Basic and applied research Sources: authors ’ experience; Easterby-Smith et al . (2008); Hedrick et al . (1993) Figure 1.1 Basic and applied research
The research process (1) Stages of the research process • Formulating and clarifying a topic • Reviewing the literature • Designing the research • Collecting data • Analysing data • Writing up Based on Figure 1.2: Saunders et al . (2009)
The research process (2) Factors to consider • The impact of your personal feelings and beliefs • Access to data • Time and other resources • Validity and reliability of the data • Ethical issues
Conducting a Literature Review
Reasons for reviewing the literature • To conduct a ‘ preliminary ’ search of existing material • To organise valuable ideas and findings • To identify other research that may be in progress • To generate research ideas • To develop a critical perspective
The literature review process Figure 3.1 The literature review process
The Critical Review (1) Approaches used Deductive - Develops a conceptual framework from the literature which is then tested using the data Inductive - Explores the data to develop theories which are then tested against the literature
The Critical Review (2) Key purposes • To further refine research questions and objectives • To discover recommendations for further research • To avoid repeating work already undertaken • To provide insights into strategies and techniques appropriate to your research objectives Based on Gall et al . (2006)
Adopting a critical perspective (1) Skills for effective reading • Previewing • Annotating • Summarising • Comparing and contrasting Harvard College Library (2006)
Adopting a critical perspective (2) The most important skills are • The capacity to evaluate what you read • The capacity to relate what you read to other information Wallace and Wray (2006)
Adopting a critical perspective (3) Questions to ask yourself Why am I reading this? What is the author trying to do in writing this? How convincing is is this? What use can I make of this reading? Adapted from Wallace and Wray (2006)
The key to a critical literature review • Demonstrate that you have read, understood and evaluated your material • Link the different ideas to form a cohesive and coherent argument • Make clear connections to your research objectives and the subsequent empirical material Saunders et al . (2009)
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The Research Process ‘ Onion ’ (Saunders et al., 2012) Research philosophy Positivism Phenomenology Research approaches Deductive Inductive Research strategies • Experiment • Grounded theory • Survey • Ethnography Time • Case study • Action research horizon Cross sectional Longitudinal Data collection Sampling, secondary data, methods observation, interviews, 50 questionnaires
Research Philosophy According to Saunders et al (2012): • Research philosophy “ relates to the development of knowledge and the nature of that knowledge ” (p. 127). • Contains important assumptions about the way in which you view the world. 51
Types of Research Philosophy (Saunders et al., 2012) Pragmatism Positivism Realism Interpretivism Ontology External External Objective Socially constructed Multiple Objective Exists independent of Subjective Chose the best approach to Independent of social human thoughts Multiple answer the questions actors May change Epistemology Observable phenomenon Only observable Observable Subjective meanings Subjective meanings phenomenon can phenomena provides and social phenomenon provides acceptable provide useful credible data, facts Focus on a details of a knowledge information Focus on explaining situation within a context/s Seeks for reality behind these details Axiology Values play a large role in Research is undertaken Research is value Research is value bound results interpretation in a value free way laden Researcher is part of The research adopts a both Researcher is The researcher is what is being objective and subjective independent of the data biased by world views researched perspective Researcher maintains Cannot be separated an objective stance Subjective Data collection Mixed or multiple methods Highly structured Methods must fit the Small samples techniques most designs Large samples chosen subject In-depth investigations often used Quantitative Quantitative Quantitative or Qualitative Qualitative qualitative 52
Research Approaches Deduction: theory and hypothesis are developed and tested Induction: data are collected and a theory developed from the data analysis 53
Deduction 5 sequential stages of testing theory • Deducing a hypothesis • Expressing the hypothesis operationally • Testing the operational hypothesis • Examining the specific outcome of the enquiry • Modifying the theory (if necessary) Adapted from Robson (2002) 54
Characteristics of Deduction • Explaining causal relationships between variables • Establishing controls for testing hypotheses • Independence of the researcher • Concepts operationalised for quantitative measurement • Generalisation 55
Induction Building theory by – • Understanding the way human build their world • Permitting alternative explanations of what’s going on • Being concerned with the context of events • Using more qualitative data • Using a variety of data collection methods 56
Choosing your research approach The right choice of approach helps you to • Make a more informed decision about the research design • Think about which strategies will work for your research topic • Adapt your design to cater for any constraints Adapted from Easterby-Smith et al . (2008) 57
Combining research approaches Things worth considering • The nature of the research topic • The time available • The extent of risk • The research audience – managers and markers 58
Research Strategy • Research strategy is concerned with the plan of how the researcher will answer the research objectives (Saunders et al., 2012). • It is the methodological link between the research philosophy and data collection methods to analyse the data (Denzin & Lincoln, 2005). 59
Research Strategies Experiment Action research Grounded theory Survey Ethnography Case study Archival research
Research Strategies Survey: key features • Popular in business research • Perceived as authoritative • Allows collection of quantitative data • Data can be analysed quantitatively • Samples need to be representative • Gives the researcher independence • Structured observation and interviews can be used
Research Strategies Case Study: key features • Provides a rich understanding of a real life context • Uses and triangulates multiple sources of data A case study can be categorised in four ways and based on two dimensions: single case v. multiple case holistic case v. embedded case Yin (2003)
Types of Strategies Research strategy Characteristics Survey Associated with deductive research approach Answer ‘what’, ‘where’, ‘how much’ and ‘how many’ questions Archival research Uses administrative records and documents as sources of data Case study Aims to answer ‘why’, ‘what’ and ‘how’ questions May use quantitative or qualitative methods Action research This is an iterative process to develop answers to the real life organisational problems Grounded theory This is developed as a response to the extreme of positivism Develops theoretical explanations of social interactions 63
Types of Data Data collection Benefits Limitations method Primary data Specific to the research Limits international research scope conducted Requires heavy applications of Wider opportunity for findings procedures Enhanced knowledge and Questions the quality of and scope insights of information Custom-made research results High time and resource commitment Secondary data Comparatively efficient May not be aligned with the Saves time and money research objectives Enables access to broader Uncertainty and hence validity of research research Wider opportunities for conclusions 64
Research Methods 65
Multiple research methods Figure 5.4 Research choices
Quantitative and Qualitative Methods • Quantitative methods – Generates data expressed numerically – Primary data is collected as numbers or converted into numbers by coding these prior to analysis – Analysis aims to find statistically significant results • Qualitative methods – Generates data expressed in words , analyzed conceptually – Data collected is grouped into categories or themes – Provide a ‘ richer ’ descriptive collection of data 67
Summary of Methodology (Walliman, 2011) Research Description Advantages Limitations method Qualitative Focus on collecting data Can explore attitudes, Cannot be accurately measured and relevant to feelings, behaviours and counted emotions and ideas experiences Unstructured Data is more descriptive Process oriented Lack of transparency Quantitative Focus on numerical Structured method for May fail to provide generalisation by aspects of data data collection comparison of properties and Easy to analyse contexts of individual organism Can develop Fails to understand respondent’s relationship between point of view variables Can collect data from a large number of sample Logical approach 68
Qualitative methods • Reasons to chose qualitative methods should be based on the methodological stance and the aim(s) of the research project • Vehicle of generating a vast array of rich data • Expertise is needed in the design , execution and analysis of the interviews
What is an Interview? • An interview is a purposeful discussion between two or more people (Khan & Cannell, 1957). • The nature of any interview should be consistent with your research aim and objectives , the purpose of your research and the research strategy that you have adopted.
Advantages of Interviews • Free from disturbances . • Increased accuracy of the information collected through the respondents. • The ability to capture social dynamics . • Respondents could be more comfortable to interact with confidence.
Disadvantages of Interviews • Requires a skilled person to conduct an interview. • The interviewer should be fully aware of the research. • Time consuming . • Resource intensive .
Types of Interviews • There are 3 categories 1. Unstructured or in-depth interviews 2. Structured interviews 3. Semi-structured interviews
Unstructured or In-depth Interviews • A situation where the interviewer doesn’t enter the interview setting with a planned sequence of questions to be asked of the respondent. • The main objective is to bring some preliminary issues to the surface so that the researcher can determine what variable need further in-depth investigation.
Unstructured or In-depth Interviews • Important in clarifying the “ broad problem area ” and eventually to determine the real problem. • Helps to understand the situation in totality . • The interviewee is given the opportunity to talk freely about events, behaviour and beliefs in relation to the topic area.
Structured Interviews • Structured interviews are those conducted when it is known at the outset what information is needed . • The interviewer has a list of pre-determined and standardized questions to be asked from the respondents either personally, through the telephone or via internet (example: Skype). • Alternatively called as “ Interviewer- administered questionnaires” .
Structured Interviews • The questions are likely to focus on factors that had surfaced during the unstructured interviews and are considered relevant to the problem. • Sometimes, however based on the necessity of the situation, the experienced researcher might take a lead from a respondent ’ s answer and ask other relevant questions not on the interview protocol .
Semi-Structured Interviews • In semi-structured interviews, the research will have a list of themes and questions to be covered, although these may vary from interview to interview . • The order of questions may also be varied depending on the flow of the conversation .
Semi-Structured Interviews • In contrast, additional questions may be required to further explore research questions and objectives given the nature of events.
Questioning • There are main 3 types of questions that can be used during semi-structured and in-depth interviews . 1. Open questions 2. Probing questions 3. Specific and closed questions
Open Questions • An open question is designed to encourage the interviewee to provide an extensive and developmental answer , and may be used to reveal the attitudes or obtain facts . • Encourage the interviewees to reply as they wish . • An open question is likely to start with, or include, ‘ what ’ , ‘ how ’ or ‘ why ’ .
Open Questions Example: Why did the organization introduce its marketing strategy? How has cooperate strategy changed over the past five years?
Probing Questions • Probing questions may be worded like open questions but request a particular focus or direction . Example: How would you evaluate the success of this new marketing strategy ? What external factors caused the corporate strategy to change?
Probing Questions • Probing questions may also be used to seek an explanation where you do not understand the interviewee’s meaning or where the response does not reveal the reasoning involved . Example: What do you mean by “bumping” as a means to help to secure volunteers for redundancy?
Probing Questions • The use of reflection may also help to probe a theme. i.e. Where you will reflect a statement made by the interviewee by paraphrasing their words . Example: Why don ’ t you think that the employees understand the need of advertising?
Probing Questions • Where an open question does not reveal a relevant response , you may also probe the area of interest by using a supplementary question that finds a way of rephrasing the organizational question .
Specific and Closed Questions • The questions that are used to obtain specific information or to confirm a fact of opinion . • Commonly use in structured interviews . Example: How many people respond to the customer survey? Did you lose money?
Preparation • The key to successful interview is careful preparation . • When using unstructured interviews the Five Ps are a useful mantra: “ Prior Planning Prevents Poor performance ” .
Quantitative Data
Surveys for Obtaining Data • Main types of surveys: (1) Mail/postal (2) Phone (3) Face-to-face (4) Internet
Surveys • Provides a quantifiable measurement of relationships, feelings or desires • Widely used method in Marketing, Finance, HR and Operational Research
Data Collection Designing a Questionnaire
What is a Questionnaire? • A questionnaire is a series of questions asked from individuals to obtain statistically useful information about a given topic. • When properly constructed and responsibly administered , questionnaires become a vital instrument by which statements can be made about specific groups or people or entire populations.
Questionnaires • Questionnaires are one of the most widely used methods of collecting data especially in business and management research • It is a mechanism of recording answers by respondents to questions raised by researchers • It could also be an interview in which questions are asked either in person or over the phone.
Questionnaire • They are a valuable method of collecting a wide range of information from a large number of individuals, often referred to as respondents . • The design of your questionnaire will affect the response rate and the reliability and validity of the data you collect.
Questionnaire • The response rate , the reliability and the validity can be maximized by: - Careful design of individual questions - Clear and pleasing layout the questionnaire - Lucid explanation of the purpose of the questionnaire - Pilot testing - Carefully planned and executed administration
Advantages of Questionnaires • Non-bias responses can be collected. • Data obtained through structured questionnaires can be easily generalised to the sample. • Data can be collected from a large number of respondents. • Less time consuming . • Less resources consuming .
Disadvantages of Questionnaires • The risk of non-response . • Unable to capture social dynamics . • The respondent have very minimal opportunities to clarify certain questions and its context.
Importance of Pilot Testing Pilot test will provide following information, • How long the questionnaire took to complete • The clarity of instruction • Which, if any, questions were unclear or ambiguous • Which, if any, questions the respondent felt uneasy about answering • Whether in their opinion there were any major topic omissions • Whether the layout was clear and attractive • Any other comments
Things to do after Pilot testing • Amend the questions according to the feedback received • Insert a copy of the pilot questionnaire or interview questions in an appendix • Demonstrate how the pilot test helped you refine your questionnaire/interview questions
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