POLI 359 Public Policy Making Session 6-Nature and Public Policy - - PowerPoint PPT Presentation

College of Education School of Continuing and Distance Education

2016/2017

POLI 359 Public Policy Making

Session 6-Nature and Public Policy Making

Lecturer: Dr . Kuyini Abdulai Mohammed, Dept. of Political Science Contact Information: akmohammed@ug.edu.gh

godsonug.wordpress.com/blog

Definition of Public Policy

Slide 2

• Public policy defies a precise definition. For this

reason there many definition of public policy. Each definition emphasize a particular dimension of reality of the discipline.

• But none of the definitions is as exhaustive as to

cover all the dimensions of reality of the subject. The definitions offered here are from: Thomas Dye, William Jenkins, James Anderson and Yehezkel Dror.

Definition of Thomas Dye

Slide 3

• ͚AŶLJthiŶg a goǀerŶŵeŶt Đhooses to do or Ŷot to do.͛
• ͚What goǀerŶŵeŶts do, ǁhLJ theLJ do it, aŶd ǁhat

difference it ŵakes.͛

• The elements of the above definitions are:
• Government is the agent of policy
• Government makes choices in the course of making

policies

• GoǀerŶŵeŶt͛s action and decision can be

positive, negative or non-decision.

Definition of William Jenkins

Slide 4

• ͚A set of interrelated decisions taken by a political actor
• r group of actors concerning the selection of goals and

the means of achieving them within a specified situation, where these decisions should, in principle, within the power of those actors to aĐhieǀe.͛

• The key elements in the definition are:
• Public policy making is a process rather than an

event.

• Public policy is made up of interrelated decisions.
• Public policy making consumes resources.
• Public policy making is goal-oriented.

Definition of James Anderson

Slide 5

• ͚A purposiǀe Đourse of aĐtioŶ folloǁed ďLJ aŶ aĐtor or set
• f aĐtors iŶ dealiŶg ǁith a proďleŵ or ŵatter of ĐoŶĐerŶ͛
• The key elements in this definition are:
• There a multiple actors in the public policy making arena.
• Nevertheless, government ultimately determines policy

and is responsible for implementation and evaluation.

• Establishes a link between government action and

perception, real or otherwise, of the existence of a problem or concern requiring action.

Definition of Yehezkel Dror

Slide 6

• ͚A ǀerLJ Đoŵpledž aŶd dLJŶaŵiĐ proĐess ǁhose ǀarious

components make different contributions to it. It decides major guidelines for action directed at the future mainly by governmental organizations. These guidelines on policies formally aim at achieving what is in the public interest by the best possible ŵeaŶs.͛

• The key elements in this definition are:
• Public policy making is a complex and dynamic process.
• Public policy aims at achieving the public interest.
• Public policy should be made efficiently and effectively.

Thread that runs through the Definitions

Slide 7

• A policy is a set of decisions or courses of action.
• It is intentional and is undertaken by government and
• ther actors.
• It concerns the methods of accomplishing a purpose

within a specified situation.

• It involves the assessment of pros and cons of

alternative courses of action.

• It extends over time rather than being separate

discrete decisions.

• It is purposive or goal oriented rather than due to

chance.

Thread that runs through the DefiŶitioŶs ;ĐoŶt͛d฀:

Slide 8

• It authoritatively guides the numerous decisions

made in implementing the objectives chosen.

• It connotes interaction with the environment.
• The environment imposes constraints on the

attainment of objectives.

• The term policy is used here to embrace both what is

intended and what occurs as a result of the intention.

• It is operationally identified not by its goals.
• Rather it is identified by its actual behaviour in

attempting to affect the goals.

Thread that runs through the DefiŶitioŶs ;ĐoŶt͛d฀:

Slide 9

• Public policy then is policy developed and

pursued under the authority of government

• Public policy making is concerned with policy:
• Development
• Implementation
• Evaluation

Characteristics of Public Policy

Slide 10

• It is very complex– involves multiple interactions at

many different levels

• It is a dynamic process – continuous activity

changes over time

• It involves multiplicity of various components,

structures and substructures

• The different structures and substructures make

different contributions to public policy

• It involves decision making.

Characteristics of Public Policy ;ĐoŶt͛d฀:

Slide 11

• It lays down general directives rather than detailed
• rders.
• It is action-oriented and results in external action.
• It is futuristic–introduces the ever present element of

uncertainty.

• It is mainly conducted by governmental
• rganizations.
• It formally aims at achieving what is in the public

interest.

• It aims at achieving the public interest by the best

possible means.

Distinction between a Policy and a Decision

Slide 12

• Decision making denotes the choice of an

alternative from among a series of competing alternatives.

• It is a conscious choice between two or more

alternatives.

• A policy is a purposive course of action or inaction

followed by an actor or set of actors in dealing with a matter of concern.

• A person makes a decision but a group make a

policy.

• A policy has wider ramifications and a long term

perspective than a decision.

• A policy is bigger than a decision.

Distinction between a Policy and a Program

Slide 13

• A policy is a broad statement of goals and means.
• A program consists of the actions to achieve the ends of

a stated policy.

• A variety of programs may be developed in response to

the same policy goals.

• For example, the School Feeding Program, School

Sandals Program and the school Uniform program are in Ghana are all under the Education Reform Program.

• In one vein several programs can response to a policy

goal but in another, it a program can stand alone as a policy.

Distinction between a Policy and a Law

Slide 14

• A policy is a broad statement of goals and means.
• Law is a system of rules and guidelines usually enforced

through a set of institutions.

• Law shapes politics, economics and society.
• Law serves as mediator of relations between people.
• Law can compel or prohibit behaviour (e.g. requiring

the payment of taxes and making abortion illegal).

• While policy merely guides actions towards those that

are more likely to achieve desired outcomes.

• Public policy must be formulated within a legal

framework.

Distinction between a Policy and a Law ;ĐoŶt͛d฀:

Slide 15

• Law is the traditional instrument of government policy.
• Law provides the final guarantee that policy intention can

be translated into action.

• Law can facilitate, allowing a course of action.
• Law can coerce, requiring or prohibiting certain

behaviour.

• Law creates and govern institutions.
• Some laws are symbolic, stating aspirations of social value
• Laws are also binding on government, and may impose.

specific an unique obligations on the political, policy and administrative domains.

Distinction between Policy and Politics

Slide 16

• Politics refers to art and science of governing a political

entity like a nation.

• Politics generally revolves round government and its

activities.

• Politics refers to the theory and practice of governance.
• Politics denotes authority and public life.
• In a democratic systems political parties run the

government.

• These parties all adhere to certain policies.
• PoliĐLJ is aŶ oǀerall plaŶ of a goǀerŶŵeŶt͛s geŶeral goals.

Distinction between Policy and Politics ;ĐoŶt͛d฀:

Slide 17

• A policy is a statement of intent with the accompanying

means to translate it into concrete phenomena.

• It is on the basis of policies that a government is held

accountable.

• All public policies are inherently political.
• Policies involve political decisions made not just by

politicians but a range of decision makers.

• These decision s are complex–they necessitate the

weighing of competing interests.

• Policy decision necessitate cooperation and

competition.

Distinction between Policy and Politics ;ĐoŶt͛d฀:

Slide 18

• A policy decision also necessitates conflict.
• Politics means more than just the business of

government.

• Politics is an aspect of all social relations.
• Politics is a central part of any situation where groups of

people make decisions.

• Policy making is political because it entails the distribution
• f power among and between groups and individuals.
• The distribution of power is unequal and results in

winners and gainers.

• Thus policy making is political because:

Distinction between Policy and Politics ;ĐoŶt͛d฀:

Slide 19

• It involves conflict and cooperation
• It involves struggle for power and influence
• It involves struggle for authority
• The struggle involves groups and individuals both

inside and outside government

• Politics is not only about implementing party platform
• It also involves attaining and keeping government

through policies that attract voters

• Philosophy and ideology are important in politics.

Distinction between Policy and Politics ;ĐoŶt͛d฀:

Slide 20

• But pragmatic politics involves judgment on the

consequences of government decisions

• At the center of the political world is the office of the

president

• In majoritarian parliaments Presidents are very powerful

and can easily pass their policies

• President in such systems must offer effective leadership
• While doing so they should able to maintain party

support

• The standard test of effective leadership is electability
• Leaders who can win next election carry colleagues

along.

Distinction between Policy and Politics ;ĐoŶt͛d฀:

Slide 21

• Leaders matter because they provide a public identity for

a government.

• President also provide a sense of coherence and direction
• Leaders play both political and policy roles.
• Leaders are the juncture at which politics and policy

meet.

• Political advisors are largely confined to the political

world.

• Presidents must reach beyond the confines of parliament

and the executive office to engage the broader agenda of public policy.

• A government stands or falls on its policy choices.

Distinction between Policy and Politics ;ĐoŶt͛d฀:

Slide 22

• These choices must be well considered and sufficiently

coordinated.

• Coordination ensures that one policy does not

undermine another.

• Government need to develop and monitor policy.
• Government also needs to achieve consistency across the

many agencies which make up a modern public sector.

• Much of substantive policy development takes place in

government agencies.

• It also takes place in inter-departmental committees.

Distinction between Policy and Politics ;ĐoŶt͛d฀:

Slide 23

• Policy relies on expert and impartial bureaucratic advisor.
• Policy might be finalized in the political forum of cabinet.
• But this is frequently done on the basis of advice from

professional public servants.

• The policy world is rule-bound place in which submissions

and decisions follow strict formats.

• These formats provide clear rules to central agencies in
• rder to maintain quality and accuracy of cabinet

material.

• The authoritative nature of cabinet decisions require that

choices be reached on the basis of full and relevant facts.

Link between Policy and Public Administration

Slide 24

• Public administration involves activity.
• It is concerned with politics and policy making.
• It tends to be concentrated in the executive branch of

government.

• It is concerned with implementing policy and law.
• The discipline of public administration has a wide
• scope. Thus, its definition reflects its omnibus

character.

• Public administration is the use of managerial, legal and

political theories and processes to fulfill legislative, executive and judicial governmental mandates.

Link between Policy and Public AdŵiŶistratioŶ ;ĐoŶt͛d฀:

Slide 25

• These mandates involve the provision of regulatory

and service functions for society as a whole.

• Thus, the public administrator plans, organizes and

implements these processes for the achievement of the governmental mandates.

• The mandate of government includes the achievement
• f political, economic and social objectives.
• These three categories of objectives are supposed to

improve the well-being of the people.

• Public administration is the study of the public sector.

Link between Policy and Public AdŵiŶistratioŶ ;ĐoŶt͛d฀:

Slide 26

• Public administration refers to how the administrative

parts of government are organized, process information and produce outputs in policies, laws and goods.

• Public administration is an activity serving the public.
• Public servants carry out policies derived from others.
• Public administration is concerned with procedures.
• Public administration is also concerned with translating

policies into action.

• Public administration is also concerned with office

management.

Link between Policy and Public AdŵiŶistratioŶ ;ĐoŶt͛d฀:

Slide 27

• Public administration focuses on procedures and propriety.
• Public management involves much more than public

administration.

• Instead of merely following instructions, a public manager

focuses on achieving results.

• The public manager then takes responsibility for the results

achieved.

• Thus, public administration has lost favour as the

description

• f the work done by appointed officers.
• The term manager is more common these days.

Link between Policy and Public AdŵiŶistratioŶ ;ĐoŶt͛d฀:

Slide 28

• Public administrators were formerly called

administrators, principal officers, or assistant directors.

• Today they are being referred to as managers.
• This may simply be a fad or fashion.
• But it might also reflect a real change in expectations
• f

the persons occupying the position.

• The changes in title are not superficial; they are real

shifts in paradigm.

• Public servants increasingly see themselves as

managers instead of administrators.

Link between Policy and Public AdŵiŶistratioŶ ;ĐoŶt͛d฀:

Slide 29

• They see their function as organizing to achieve
• bjectives.
• They see themselves as taking responsibility for results

rather than merely following instructions.

• To be effective, policies rely on public administration.
• Once choices have been made activity must be directed at

achieving the intended objectives.

• This is the domain of administration in which services are

delivered.

• It is incumbent on the political executive to design ,

implement and monitor policy.

Link between Policy and Public AdŵiŶistratioŶ ;ĐoŶt͛d฀:

Slide 30

• The formulation of policy is thus a principal government

activity.

• But policies mean nothing if they cannot be

implemented.

• This means depending on bureaucrats or contractors who

work for government.

• Public servants are part of the executive arm of

government.

• Not all public service work is directly concerned with

policy development.

• But all public service effort is affected by public policy.

Link between Policy and Public AdŵiŶistratioŶ ;ĐoŶt͛d฀:

Slide 31

• The work of public servants is driven by the policy

priorities of the government of the day.

• The study of policy has tended to be associated with

the study of the bureaucracy and public administration.

• Administrative agencies are central planks in the policy

making process.

• No study of public could take no notice of

administrative agencies.

• Bureaucrats and politicians work within a broader

political framework.

Link between Policy and Public AdŵiŶistratioŶ ;ĐoŶt͛d฀:

Slide 32

• This framework is defined by factors such as prevailing

ideologies, assumptions, and values.

• They are also defined by structures of power,

influence and patterns of conflict and division.

• Moreover, much of the literature on bureaucracy is

concerned with questions such as efficiency and effectiveness.

• These ingredients while important, do not seem to be

the major ones.

• Policy making must be broader than public

administration.

Link between Policy and Public AdŵiŶistratioŶ ;ĐoŶt͛d฀:

Slide 33

• The perspective of public administration is important

but limited.

• Thus, we need to link up the study of policy with the

more traditional focus on political science.

• In particular we have to link policy study with power,

conflict and ideology.

• What governments do cannot be fully explained by

focusing on only the perceptions and actions of the proximate policy makers.

• Environmental forces cannot also not explain their

work.

Link between Policy and Public AdŵiŶistratioŶ ;ĐoŶt͛d฀:

Slide 34

• Environmental forces include levels of economic

development.

• It also include urbanization and affluence.
• Policy develops from the play of

economic, social and political forces.

• These forces are evident in and through institutions

and processes.

• The risk in the emergence of a specialized sub-

disĐipliŶe of ͞poliĐLJ sĐieŶĐe͟ is suĐh ďroad forĐes ǁill be ignored or assumed.

Link between Policy and Budget

Slide 35

• Government policy objectives can be achieved through:
• Tax policy
• Public expenditure policy
• Combination of tax and expenditure policies
• Thus, direct comparison are needed of the costs and

benefits of alternative revenue and expenditure packages.

• A sound program of public expenditure requires a

realistic estimate of revenue.

• This is because choices cannot be made without a clear

idea of how much is likely to be available.

Link between Policy and Budget ;ĐoŶt͛d฀:

Slide 36

• An expenditure program that does not conform to a

realistic limit of resources available is a wish list

• Such a list is not a program, and the budget that

contains it is only bulky paper document

• Expenditure should establish a strong link between

government policies and the budget that is intended to implement them

• For this link to be strong, policy choices themselves

must first meet certain basic criteria.

Link between Policy and Budget ;ĐoŶt͛d฀:

Slide 37

These criteria include the following:

• Discipline – policies should be consistent, without

contradictions.

• Realistic – policies should be affordable & implementable.
• Stable – frequent policy reversals should be avoided.
• Open – the criteria and processes of decision making

should be explicit and public.

• Selective – filter out minor matters and prevent wasting

politiĐal leaders͛ tiŵe aŶd attention.

• Communicate – a badly understood policy cannot be

implemented and is unlikely to properly reflect in budget.

Link between Policy and Public AdŵiŶistratioŶ ;ĐoŶt͛d฀:

Slide 38

To successfully link revenue and expenditure allocation to government policies the budget should adhere to the following rules:

• Estimates of revenue and expenditure should be shown

in gross terms.

• Expenditures and revenues should be classified on the

same basis as the overall budget.

• All accounts must be subject to regular external audit.
• Financial reports of government activities must combine

the operations of autonomous funds and agencies.

Types of Policies

Slide 39

According to Lowi (1977) policies can be classified as:

• Substantive and procedural
• Distributive, redistributive, or regulatory
• Material or symbolic

For Fenna (2004) policies can be grouped as:

• Production issue policies
• Distributive issue policies
• Consumption issue policies
• Identity issue policies, and Reflexive issue policies

Reasons for Studying Public Policy

Slide 40

• We learn about concrete solutions to practical

problems.

• Understanding the causes and consequences of

policies improves our knowledge of society.

• Knowing the causes and consequences of policies

enables us to apply social science knowledge to solve problems.

• We are able to inform political discussions, advance

the leǀel of politiĐal aǁareŶess aŶd iŵproǀe poliĐLJ͛s

• quality. As taxpayers citizens should have a say in

government spending – policy priorities.

Reasons for Studying Public Policy ;ĐoŶt͛d฀:

Slide 41

• Policy analysis become a profession to those who

study it.

• We build our characters through studying public

policies.

• Policy studies is a vehicle for contesting the

existing

• rder.
• Policy studies also spur in us the urge to assert our

right to participate in public affairs.

• Policy studies help draw attention to a range of

things happening around us.

Public Policy in a Globalized World

Slide 42

• Globalization is one of the key challenges in

contemporary policy making

• The forces of globalization include:
• Technological change
• Neo-liberal economic ideology
• Drive by transnational corporation for higher

profitability

• Economic, social and cultural integration

Public Policy in a Globalized World ;ĐoŶt͛d฀:

Slide 43

• Two important happening associated with globalization

altered public policy making

• These events are:
• Governance as a concept has become more fragmented.
• The ĐoŶĐept of ͚puďliĐ͟ left the ŶatioŶal ĐoŶfiŶes

and assumed more global definition.

• Thus policy making in an era of globalized is occurring

in an institutional void

• In this void, there are no clear rules and norms of the

game of policy making.