A STUDY OF FRAMING IN THE B.C. FOREST CONSERVATION MOVEMENT. The - - PDF document

A STUDY OF FRAMING IN THE B.C. FOREST CONSERVATION MOVEMENT.

The study of frame alignment processes involves examining the linkages between the perceptions, values and interests of individuals and the recruitment strategies employed by social movement organizations.

A frame was defined as a "framework of interpretation" that allows individuals to locate, perceive, identify and label events in the world. "By rendering events or occurrences meaningful, frames function to organize experience and guide action" (Snow et al., 1986: 464). The key argument was that "frame alignment" is a necessary prerequisite to movement participation. "By frame alignment, we refer to the linkage of individual and SMO (social movement organization) interpretations, such that some set of individual interests, values and beliefs and SMO activities, goals and ideologies are congruent and complementary" (1986: 464). Thus, it means aligning the interpretive frames of the individual and the SMO. Snow et al. (1986) identify four key frame alignment processes:

• 1. frame bridging
• 2. frame amplification
• 3. frame extension
• 4. frame transformation.

These specified various conceptual categories that together made up the overall process of "frame alignment".

Frame bridging occurs when the social movement organization taps into previously unconnected "ideologically consistent or frame compatible sentiment pools" (Snow et al, 1986: 468). Frame amplification refers to the process of making salient the key values and beliefs important to a social movement's goals and activities. Proponents argue that while these key values and beliefs may be held by individuals, they exist along side a whole host of other values and beliefs and thus their importance is relatively ambiguous to potential movement adherents. Support for and participation in movement activities is often dependent on the clarification and reinvigoration of an interpretive frame. Frame extension occurs when movement leaders "elaborate goals and activities so as to encompass auxiliary interests not obviously associated with the movement in hopes of enlarging its adherent base". Snow et al. note that the programs, causes, and values that some SMOs promote may not be consonant with the lifestyles and existing interpretive frameworks of individuals. In such cases a transformation frame is required. According to Snow et al., two things are involved in this change of interpretation. First, there is a change in the perceived seriousness of the condition such that what was previously seen as an unfortunate but tolerable situation is redefined as inexcusable, unjust, or immoral. However, the development of an injustice frame is not enough to explain the direction of action. Action is dependent on whether blame is internalized or externalized. The emergence of an injustice frame must be accompanied by a corresponding shift in attributional orientation.

One criticism of the earlier work, was that depictions of framing were seen as being too static. In response, Snow and Benford defined three core framing tasks: diagnostic, prognostic and motivational framing. “Diagnostic frames involved identifying a problem and attributing blame or causality” (Benford, 1993, p. 699). Prognostic frames involve suggesting solutions to problems, “including how to achieve the solutions, i.e., the identification of general strategies (e.g., direct action, legislative, electoral), tactics (e.g., sit-ins, strikes, boycotts, petitions), and targets.” (Benford 1993, p. 699) Motivational Frames provide a rationale for action that goes beyond diagnosis and prognosis. Snow and Benford note: “Since agreement about the causes and solutions to a particular problem does not automatically produce corrective action, it follows that consensus mobilization does not necessarily yield to

• mobilization. Participation is thus contingent upon the development
• f motivational frames that function as prods to action. “ (Snow and

Benford, 1988, pp. 201-202)

Framing Tactic The dimension we have labelled, framing tactic, is drawn from Snow et al.’s

• riginal set of “frame alignment concepts” and refers to the type of framing device

being used: 1. Amplification, or 2. Transformation. Core Framing Function The dimension we have labelled, core framing function, refers to three basic purposes that frames can serve: 1. Problem Identification, 2. Strategies for Action,

• 3. Motivational Appeals. These categories summarize concepts from several

different groups of researchers (notably Snow, Benford et al.; Gamson et al.), and thus we will provide a few details about each. Problem Identification Frames involve identifying the nature and scope of problems as well as making attributions about causality and blame; this concept is derived from Snow and Benford’s “diagnostic frames”. Action Frames incorporate the concepts of “prognostic” (Snow and Benford), “collective action” (Snow and Benford) and “agency” frames (Gamson). They provide prescriptions for “solving the problem” and/or templates for individual and collective action. Motivational Frames, refer to arguments and images that attempt to draw an emotional response on the part of the receiver. Our formulation of the concept draws upon Snow and Benford’s original concept and also incorporates “injustice frames”.

TABLE 1. KEYWORD FRAME BY FRAMING TACTIC AND CORE FRAMING FUNCTION KEYWORD FRAME FRAMING TACTIC CORE FRAMING FUNCTION Amplification Transformation Problem Identification Action Motivational Civil Disobedience X Gandhi X Martin Luther King and/or the U.S. Civil Rights Movement X Ancient Forests /Old Growth X X Biological Diversity, Biodiversity, Diversity X X Wilderness X X Spotted Owl X X Marbled Murrelet X X Yew (Pacific Yew) X X Clearcut, Clearcutting X X Brazil of the North X

TABLE 1. (CONTINUED) KEYWORD FRAME BY FRAMING TACTIC AND CORE FRAMING FUNCTION KEYWORD FRAME FRAMING TACTIC CORE FRAMING FUNCTION Amplification Transformation Problem Identification Action Motivational Ecosystem X X Sustainable, Sustainability X X Giants (Carmanah Giants), Giant Spruce Trees X X Cathedral (Natural Cathedral) X X Sacred X X Selective Cutting/Harvesting X X Conservation X Preservation X X

HYPOTHESES We have developed three categories of hypotheses: 1) comparative, 2) temporal, and 3)

• contingency. The comparative hypotheses consider the relative prevalence of particular core

framing functions and tactics overall. The temporal hypotheses consider the relative prevalence of particular core framing functions and tactics at different points in time. The contingency hypotheses examine whether the presence of particular core framing functions and tactics are contingent upon one another.

Comparative Hypotheses H1. Frame amplification occurs more frequently in the news media than does frame transformation. H2. Problem identification frames occur more frequently than either motivational frames, or action frames.

Temporal Hypotheses Amplification Versus Transformation Congruent with H1 it can be argued:

• H3A. Because they are cognitively simpler and tend to have greater “cultural

resonance” amplification frames will be more prevalent at all points in time than transformation frames. Conversely, taking into account the cycle of protest, it can be argued

• H3B. Amplification versus transformation frames will be more or less prevalent

depending upon the stage in the cycle of protest. Amplification frames should be more prevalent early on when the problem is being defined. Transformation frames should be more prevalent later in a cycle of protest once the “problem” has been defined and groups are working towards solutions.

Problem Identification Versus Action Versus Motivational Frames Congruent with H2 it can be argued:

• H4A. Motivational frames are dependent on both action and problem

identification frames. Action frames are dependent on problem identification

• frames. It is possible, however, for problem identification frames to be presented

independently of action and motivational frames. Thus at all points in time we would expect problem identification frames to be more prevalent than either action or motivational frames. At all points in time we would expect action frames to be more prevalent than motivational frames. Conversely, taking into account the cycle of protest, it can be argued:

• H4B. Problem identification versus action versus motivational frames will be

more or less prevalent depending upon the stage in the cycle of protest. Problem identification frames should be more prevalent early on when the problem is being

• defined. Action and Motivational frames should be more prevalent later in a cycle
• f protest once the “problem” has been defined and groups are working towards

solutions.

Contingency Hypotheses H5A When action frames are present, problem identification frames are more likely to be present than vice versa. H5B When motivational frames are present, problem identification frames are more likely to be present than vice versa. H5C When motivational frames are present, action frames are more likely to be present than vice versa. Parallelling the logic of the above hypotheses are the following conjectures about the relative independence of different types of frames: H6A Problem identification frames are more likely to appear in isolation (e.g., when other frames are absent) than are either action frames or motivational frames. H6B Action frames are more likely to appear in isolation (e.g. when other frames are absent) than are motivational frames. H6C Motivational frames are less likely to appear in isolation (e.g. when other frames are absent) than are either problem identification or motivational frames.

METHODOLOGY Sampling Details For the main sample (Sample #1) our sampling strategy involved using keywords (employed by a periodical index) to define news articles suitable for analysis. The strategy for selecting these keywords focussed on place names (the names of key old growth forests that were the subject of dispute – e.g. Carmanah), and topics (e.g., forestry). In addition, media outlets were chosen based on the scope of their coverage (national, regional) and on their ideological orientation (liberal, conservative). The sample was also defined in terms of its time frame. The time period (1986-1992) was chosen because it corresponded with a particular cycle of protest. For Sample #1, the Canadian Business and Current Affairs Index was utilized to develop

• ur sampling frame.

We used the following keywords to develop a listing of articles published between January 1986 and December 1992: Carmanah, Walbran, Clayoquot, Logging and BC (British Columbia), Forestry and BC, Timber and BC, Environment$ and BC ($ = wildcard character), Conservation and BC, Park$ and BC. The rationale behind this selection of keywords was to obtain a sample of news articles that dealt with forest policy and forest practices on Vancouver Island specifically (and/or B.C. in general -- but not other locations in the province). We excluded stories that dealt with things such as labour disputes involving loggers, saw mill closures, timber company stock information, etc., unless the story also referred to timber harvesting or conservation. We included in our sample the following media outlets: the Vancouver Sun, the Globe and Mail (National Edition), MacLean’s, and Western/B.C. Report. These sources were selected because they are listed on the CBCA index, and -- as noted above

• - because they provide a variation of regional, and national sources, as well as some variation

in terms of covering the ideological spectrum (e.g. from more liberal to more conservative).

Articles from the original CBCA index lists were culled from the sample if they failed to conform to the above criteria (e.g., source criteria, region criteria, and topic criteria). In cases where particular articles appeared on two lists, the duplicate was culled from the sampling frame. Sample #1 is a probability sample, and in fact, is a census of material published in these sources that fit the criteria above, for this time period. Sample #1 contains 407 articles.

Coding Details Based on a review of environmental SMO documents (such as “education” pamphlets and tabloids), reviews of non-print media, and review and reflection upon past questionnaire, interview, and field data collected by the first author, we identified and defined 19 “keyword frames” (e.g., Giant [Spruce Trees]) and 30 “thematic frames” (e.g., “jobs versus trees”) that were used in the discourse over forest conservation/preservation in British Columbia. In this article we consider only the “keyword frames”. Under the supervision of the authors, four coders were trained in coding the keyword and thematic frames. Each coder was provided with a dictionary (that identified the keyword frames and defined the thematic frames), and then provided with a subsample of articles to

• code. Microsoft ACCESS was used to created the content analysis data base.

Separately from the coding of articles, the authors created a typology that classified each

• f the keyword frame indicators within the broader framing tactic and core framing function

categories (e.g., each coder coded frame indicators from news articles on the basis of the 19 keyword indicators, then using spss these indicators were automatically classified in terms of the broader typology developed by the authors).

Amplification Keyword Frame Indicators: Some Illustrations Clearcut, Clearcutting In the conflict over forest conservation/preservation in British Columbia, much emphasis has been placed by environmentalists on clearcutting as being at the root of the problem. Video images, postcards, and posters show dramatic images of clearcuts, and these images find their way into the print media: “Overlooking the reservoir are the familiar shaved hills that mark typical B.C.

• clearcuts. Aside from the slash and debris that litter the hills and the drainage

channels - channels that will be flowing with water this winter - the hills are bare.“

• Cleverley. (1992) [May 29]. Victoria Times Colonist, B1.

“The [Time] article, illustrated with color photos of old-growth Vancouver Island stands and Island landscapes denuded by clear-cut logging, draws loose parallels between the destruction of the rain forest in Brazil and logging by Canadians, who have been in the forefront of the global struggle to protect the environment ... suddenly finding themselves in the dock.” “The Sierra’s Sharon Chow and Randy Stoltmann of the wilderness committee said clear-cut logging - taking out all the trees in an area rather than selectively removing certain trees - was far too wide-spread and that remaining old-growth forest in the province should be protected.“ Watts, Richard. 1991 [July 5]. Victoria Times Colonist, A1. “Residents of the villages of Tofino and Ucluelet have accused forestry companies

• f scarring the land with large clearcuts.” Canadian Press. 1989 [August 5].

Globe and Mail, A7.

This argument has been advanced and reinforced through use of visual media (e.g., posters, video clips) which audience members readily associate with the word clearcut. Subsequently, an image of clearcutting can be effectively communicated with the use of a single word. Various commentators (e.g., Kimmins 1997, Moore 1995) have noted that there is a tendency for people to associate the visual quality of landscapes with the health of ecosystems (e.g., see Sheppard and Harshaw 2000) and because clearcuts look “ugly” to most people they are considered to be a threat to ecosystem health. This is a type of frame amplification because problems associated with clearcutting are underscored – but they are only a subset of more complex arguments.

Giants (Carmanah) Giants, Giant Spruce Trees In an early campaign over the Carmanah valley (on Vancouver Island, British Columbia), environmental activists focussed on the “Giant Sitka Spruce” trees that were being threatened by proposed logging. Reference was made time and again to the fact that these were Canada’s tallest trees and the world’s tallest Sitka Spruce. Environmentalists are really interested in saving more than “giant trees” -- in saving things such as biodiversity, animal habitat, etc. -- but amplifying this one image proved to be a successful strategy for getting attention: “The stately tree is called the Carmanah Giant and since engineers discovered it last summer, it has come to symbolize an emotional debate that has flared among environmental groups, British Columbia’s largest logging company and the province’s workers.” Quinn (1989) [June 5]. Maclean's, 46. “The local branch of IWA-Canada has complained about Maxine’s Tree, a book about a little girl upset by the prospect of a giant fir tree being cut down on Vancouver Island.” Canadian Press. (1992) [March 5th]. Globe and Mail, C3. “The wilderness committee fears logging will cause Carmanah Creek to flood, bringing down the giant Sitka spruce trees - the tallest in North America - that line its banks. The lower valley also contains Canada’s tallest tree, a 95-metre-high Sitka spruce called the Carmanah Giant.” Bell (1991) [January 12]. Vancouver Sun, C14.

As part of a separate project, the first author interviewed a sample of core environmental

• activists. Comments by environmentalists provide insights into the use of the giant keyword as

a type of amplification frame. Although environmentalists wanted to protect the biodiversity of the ecosystem, this is a difficult concept to communicate to the public. However, as one activist stated, it was easier for the public and the press to grasp that the Carmanah has: "Canada's largest tallest trees - that's a sexy thing. The press - the CBC loves it, cause they can just go in, take a picture of the tallest trees, and walk out, and say they're going to be cut. That's why Carmanah was saved - at least fifty percent of it ... that's why Carmanah worked." (environmental activist)

Transformation Keyword Frame Indicators: Some Illustrations Selective Cutting/ Harvesting/Logging One alternative to clearcut logging suggested by environmentalists is selective logging (or selection logging, the term used by professional foresters). This involves individually cutting a small number of trees in each logging area in order to reduce the negative impacts on the forest habitat. This method is more labour intensive, and arguably could increase

• employment. Given that the industrial model of clearcutting completely dominates B.C.

forestry, this argument can be seen as an attempt at frame transformation: “Also, in an attempt to better preserve fish habitat, it is recommended stream sides be protected by at least 30 metres of untouched forest, which in turn should be protected by 60 metres of selectively logged forest.” Watts. (1991) [May 23]. Victoria Times Colonist, A7. “He [Jup Weber] claimed that continued clearcutting in B.C. will eliminate jobs after the

• ld-growth forests are gone, but if B.C. moves to selective logging “there will be jobs

forever.” Bohn (1990) [May 28]. Vancouver Sun, D2. “You’ll do anything to try to smear us because that’s your job. You can’t do anything positive about company policy, like (promoting) selective logging. You can only protect the status quo.” [said by Paul George, a local environmental leader, to MB forest company officials] Bohn. Vancouver Sun, A13.

Preservation In the late 1980s many environmental groups were calling for “preservation” of what they claimed were the few remaining intact watersheds left on Vancouver Island. Given that forestry was the biggest single industry in the province, and the fact that many small towns are solely dependent on forestry, this marked a radical prescription for how to manage forests: Friends of the Tsitika are “still asking for the Tsitika to be preserved as much as possible” to protect part of what was the last unlogged watershed on eastern Vancouver Island, said Holvenstott, a tree planter and the group’s office

• coordinator. Bohn (1992) [June 3]. Vancouver Sun, B4.

“Said Adriane Carr, a director of the Vancouver-based Western Canada Wilderness Committee: ‘The spruce groves are sustained by the entire ecosystem, and for that system to survive into the future the whole valley has to be preserved.’ Quinn (1989) [June 5]. Maclean's, 46.

As noted above, in comparison to the status quo marked by industrial forestry and clearcutting, arguments for preservation constitute an example of frame transformation. Indeed, in the environmental philosophy literature a distinction is usually made between conservation (which involves sustainable exploitation of natural resources) and preservation (which involves non- exploitation of natural resources).

Problem Identification Keyword Frame Indicators: Some Illustrations Marbled Murrelet The marbled murrelet is a small sea bird which lives mainly at sea but which nests on the large branches of “old growth trees”. Environmentalists claim that the bird is threatened, and argue that it can be seen as a type of indicator of the health of the rainforest. Similar arguments have been made about the spotted owl. “Environmentalists have argued that marbled murrelet populations are at risk from the continued liquidation of old-growth coniferous forests. The discovery of nesting sites in the upper Carmanah has posed a problem for the B.C. government, which promised, when Carmanah park was created, that no logging would take place in the upper valley until it was certain environmental impacts would be acceptable.” Hume (1990) [October 23]. Victoria Times Colonist, B1. “... The nails were banged into the tree trunk to allow Hoare to climb up and search for the nest of the marbled murrelet, the seabird whose existence is threatened because it nests in old-growth forests like those in the Walbran.” Watts, Richard. (1991) [September 25]. Victoria Times Colonist, A3. The threat posed by industrial forestry to the marbled murrelet populations is an example of a problem identification frame proffered by environmentalists.

Biological Diversity Environmentalists have focussed upon loss of biodiversity as one of the major casualties of current forestry practices such as clearcutting: “Clearcut logging, forestry B.C.-style, not only stands biodiversity on its ear - it jumps up and down on its head with boots on. Forest companies have perfected how to knock down entire plant and animal communities, as quickly as possible.” Watts (1992) [December 7]. Victoria Times Colonist, A7. The majority of those letters [sent to the Trees Farm Licence review board] demanded to know how biodiversity would be protected in those two tree farm licences. Watts (1992) [December 7]. Victoria Times Colonist, A7. The threat posed by industrial forestry to biodiversity is an example of a problem identification frame proffered by environmentalists.

Select Action Keyword Frame Indicators: Some Illustrations Sustainability Sustainable forestry, sustainable development, and a call for sustainability more generally has been one of the solutions offered by environmentalists. This frame -- which was

• riginally articulated by World Commission on Resources and Environment, and adapted to the

B.C. context by local environmental groups -- has become evident in print media coverage of forestry/conservation issues in B.C.: “The group was supposed to come up with - in its first year of operation - a long- term, sustainable development strategy for Clayoquot Sound, a region of lush, ancient rainforests and beautiful, white sandy beaches on the west coast of Vancouver Island. Hume. (1990) [August 7]. Vancouver Sun, D10. “NDP environment critic John Cashore said the proposed saw-off in the Carmanah “betrays a tired government, bankrupt of ideas, totally out of touch with the values and vision so necessary for the resource and wilderness planning required to develop a sustainable future for our children.” Leyne (1990) [July 7]. Victoria Times Colonist, A3. “As described in the Strangway report, sustainable development “offers the possibility of achieving a better integration of environmental and economic policy

• bjectives” by “bridging two dominant contemporary ideologies: the ‘biocentric’

view, in which nature’s needs must take precedence over those of human society, and the more traditional ‘anthropocentric’ view, in which humankind has domination over the earth and all living things.” O'Neill (1990) [March 19]. B.C. Report, 20-23.

Given that forestry in B.C. has been described by a variety of commentators as being unsustainable (e.g., Marchak 1983, Marchak et al. 1999, M’Gonigle and Parfitt 1994, Burda et

• al. 1997) arguments for sustainable development constitute an action frame. While this concept

now has broad currency, it can be argued that it only started to become popularized with the World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED 1987) – whose landmark publication was produced in the second year of this study.

Civil Disobedience Non-violent civil disobedience as been has been called for and practised by “more radical” groups within the B.C. environmental movement. Ostensibly, this has been used as a last resort to slow down clearcut logging of “old growth rainforests” (or stop it in the short term), but it has also served to raise the profile of this dispute. “In the past seven years civil disobedience has become increasingly common as a way of protesting threats to the forest.” Caufield. (1990) [June 21]. Vancouver Sun, C6. “Sydney Haskell, president of the Carmanah Forestry Society, a group which has taken special interest in building trails through the Walbran, vowed civil disobedience.” Watts, Richard. (1991) [May 14]. Victoria Times Colonist, A1-2. “The judge’s decision was greeted with a new round of civil disobedience

• yesterday. Five non-native environmentalists, who have been trying since October

to thwart MacMillan Bloedel Ltd.’s cutting plans, were arrested yesterday.” Wilson (1990) [November 10]. Globe and Mail, A7. As key environmentalists articulated civil disobedience as a template for individual and collective action in order to protect old growth rainforests, this keyword serves as an indicator

• f an action frame. It should be noted that this action frame indicator tended to be associated

with other frame indicators such as “Gandhi” and “Martin Luther King and/or the U.S. Civil Rights Movement”. We have tried to analytically separate the action function from the motivational function by classifying these latter keyword indicators as motivational frame indicators.

Motivational Keyword Frame Indicators: Some Illustrations Brazil of the North One motivational frame used by environmentalists involves linking forest practices in British Columbia to those in Brazil. This “Brazil of the North” frame conjures up familiar television images of burning forests, and satellite images of “black holes” in the landscape associated with Brazil. This frame has been used to embarrass the government and forest industry, and to create a sense of outrage amongst citizens: “The ad, calling for help to save Clayoquot Sound in B.C., says that “an even greater level of environmental devastation has taken place in British Columbia” than in Brazil.” Swift (1992) [January 28]. Victoria Times Colonist, A2. “Fears of boycotting are growing since last month’s airing on German prime time television of a Vancouver-made film that called British Columbia the “Brazil of the North”. Lush (1991) [March 8]. Globe and Mail, B1. The Brazil of the North keyword is an indicator of a motivational frame because its purpose is to provide a bridge between the atrocious destruction of the Amazon rainforest and the effects

• f industrial forestry in British Columbia in order to provoke a sense of environmental
• injustice. It is our contention that motivational frames tend to be linked to either problem

identification or action frames. The Brazil of the North frame is typically associated with the problem of bad forest practices (e.g., as typified by the problem identification keyword clearcutting) – but we make the analytical distinction between “Brazil of the North” as an instance of a motivational frame, and clearcutting as an instance of a problem identification frame.

Martin Luther King and/or US Civil Rights Movement Civil disobedience has been one of the tactics employed by environmentalists to slow down clearcutting of the temperate rainforests in B.C., and many of them have made links to Martin Luther King (and others) as a role model for this type of action. Making this linkage is motivational in that it provides a rationale or justification for this type of action and places it within an honoured tradition. In fact during the court trial of those arrested for blocking logging roads to forests near Clayoquot Sound, there was much debate about the similarities and differences between the plight of environmentalists and those involved in the U.S. Civil Rights Movement: “It’s getting so you have to worry about your life travelling these backroads,” said environmental activist Colleen McCrory. “It’s just like the civil rights movement in the deep south.” Hume. (1990) [October 6]. Vancouver Sun, B3. “Coming out of my ethical and theological perspective, I’m a person who looked upon Martin Luther King as a hero.,” Cashore [Minister of the Environment]

• said. “Now I find myself in government and being on the other side of some of

those actions I find, deep within me, a real challenge to work through some of those feelings.” Watts. 1992 [December 27]. Victoria Times Colonist, A13. As noted with the previous example, although motivational frames tends to be associated with either problem identification or action frames we have tried to analytically distinguish between

• these. Thus while the frame indicator “Martin Luther King and/or the U.S. Civil Rights

Movement” (and also “Gandhi”) tend to be associated with the civil disobedience keyword frame, we classified the former as an indicator of a motivational frame and the latter as an indication of an action frame.

Table 2. Framing Tactic: Frequencies and Percentages for Keyword Frame Indicators for Combined Sample. AMPLIFICATION KEYWORD FRAME INDICATORS Frequency % Ancient Forests/Old Growth 347 36.26 Clearcut, Clearcutting 239 24.97 Giants, (Carmanah) Giants, Giant Spruce Trees 57 5.96 Marbled Murrelet 52 5.43 Spotted Owl 18 1.88 Pacific Yew 8 0.84 TOTAL AMPLIFICATION KEYWORD FRAMES 721 75.34 NUMBER OF ARTICLES 957 TRANSFORMATION KEYWORD FRAME INDICATORS Frequency Preservation 208 21.73 Wilderness 175 18.29 Sustainability 89 9.30 Biological Diversity 56 5.85 Ecosystem 50 5.22 Selective Cutting/Harvesting/Logging 33 3.45 Sacred 8 0.84 [Natural] Cathederal 2 0.21 TOTAL TRANSFORMATION KEYWORD FRAMES 621 64.89 NUMBER OF ARTICLES 957

Table 3. Core Framing Function: Frequencies and Percentages for Keyword Frame Indicators for Combined Sample. PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION KEYWORD FRAME INDICATORS Frequency % Ancient Forests/Old Growth 347 36.26 Clearcut, Clearcutting 239 24.97 Wilderness 175 18.29 Biological Diversity 56 5.85 Marbled Murrelet 52 5.43 Ecosystem 50 5.22 Spotted Owl 18 1.88 [Pacific] Yew 8 0.84 TOTAL PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION KEYWORD FRAMES 945 98.75 ACTION KEYWORD FRAME INDICATORS Frequency Preservation 208 21.73 Sustainability 89 9.30 Conservation 66 6.90 Selective Cutting/Harvesting/Logging 33 3.45 Civil Disobedience 23 2.40 TOTAL ACTION KEYWORD FRAMES 419 43.78 MOTIVATIONAL KEYWORD FRAME INDICATORS Frequency Giants, (Carmanah) Giants, Giant Spruce Trees 57 5.96 Brazil of the North 21 2.19 Sacred 8 0.84 M.L. King/U.S. Civil Rights Movement 6 0.63 Gandhi 2 0.21 Natural Cathedral 2 0.21 TOTAL MOTIVATIONAL KEYWORD FRAMES 96 10.03 NUMBER OF ARTICLES 957

Table 4. Core Framing Function: Frequencies and Percentages for Top Five Keyword Frame Indicators for Combined Sample. PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION KEYWORD FRAME INDICATORS Frequency % Ancient Forests/Old Growth 347 36.26 Clearcut, Clearcutting 239 24.97 Wilderness 175 18.29 Biological Diversity 56 5.85 Marbled Murrelet 52 5.43 Ecosystem NA NA Spotted Owl NA NA [Pacific] Yew NA NA TOTAL PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION KEYWORD FRAMES 869 90.80 ACTION KEYWORD FRAME INDICATORS Frequency % Preservation 208 21.73 Sustainability 89 9.30 Conservation 66 6.90 Selective Cutting/Harvesting/Logging 33 3.45 Civil Disobedience 23 2.40 TOTAL MOTIVATIONAL KEYWORD FRAMES 419 43.78 MOTIVATIONAL KEYWORD FRAME INDICATORS Frequency % Giants, (Carmanah) Giants, Giant Spruce Trees 57 5.96 Brazil of the North 21 2.19 Sacred 8 0.84 Martin Luther King/U.S. Civil Rights Movement 6 0.63 Gandhi 2 0.21 Natural Cathedral NA NA TOTAL MOTIVATIONAL KEYWORD FRAMES 94 9.82 NUMBER OF ARTICLES 957