Introduction 2 In this chapter, we will look at: Chapter 4 – Part 1: Human Learning Theories of learning through the eyes of four psychologists: 1 Two representing a behavioral viewpoint (Pavlov and Skinner) One representing a cognitive viewpoint (Ausubel) One representing a constructive viewpoint (Rogers). The four positions should illustrate: The history of the learning theories. The application of those theories on language teaching approaches and methods. Applied Linguistics – LANE 423 Lecturer: Haifa Alroqi Pavolov‟s Classical Behaviorism Pavolov‟s Classical Behaviorism 3 4 For an explanation of the theory, refer to class slides of Chapter 1. Later, Edward L. Thorndike expanded on classical conditioning models Drawing on Pavlov's findings, John B. Watson (1913) coined the term by showing that stimuli that occurred after a behavior had an influence behaviorism. 0n future behaviors. Watson contended that human behavior should be studied objectively, Thorndike's Law of Effect paved the way for another psychologist, B.F rejecting mentalistic notions of innateness and instinct. Skinner, to modify our understanding of human learning He adopted the classical conditioning theory as the explanation for all learning: by the process of conditioning, we build a cluster of stimulus-response connections, and more complex behaviors are learned by building up series chains of responses. Pavolov‟s Classical Behaviorism Skinner‟s Operant Conditioning 5 6 Pavlov's, Watson's, and Thorndike's emphasis on the study of overt For an explanation of the theory, refer to class slides of Chapter 1. behavior and rigorous adherence to the scientific method had a Although B. F. Skinner followed the tradition of Watson and tremendous influence, for decades, on: Thorndike, other psychologists have called him a neobehaviorist. learning theories Why? language teaching practices Because he added a unique dimension to behavioristic psychology. The classical conditioning of Pavlov was, according to Skinner, a highly specialized form of learning used mainly by animals and playing little part in human conditioning. 1
Skinner‟s Operant Conditioning Skinner‟s Operant Conditioning 7 8 Skinner called Pavlovian conditioning „respondent conditioning‟ since it was Stressing Thorndike's Law of Effect, Skinner demonstrated the importance of concerned with respondent behavior - that is, behavior that is elicited by a those events that follow a response. preceding stimulus. Example: Skinner's operant conditioning attempted to account for most of human Suppose that a baby accidentally touches a nearby object and a tinkling bell learning and behavior. sound occurs. Operant behavior is behavior in which one “operates” on the environment The infant may look in the direction from which the sound came, become e.g. we cannot identify a specific stimulus leading a baby to rise to a standing curious about it, and after several such "accidental" responses discover exactly position or to take a first step; we therefore need not be concerned about which toy it is that makes the sound and how to produce that sound. stimulus, but we should be concerned about the consequences - the stimuli The baby operated on her environment. Her responses were reinforced until that follows the response. finally a particular concept or behavior was learned. Skinner‟s Operant Conditioning Skinner‟s Operant Conditioning 9 10 According to Skinner, the events or stimuli - the reinforcers- that Therefore, Skinner felt that, in studying human behavior, we have to follow a response and that tend: study the effect of those consequences. to strengthen behavior And if we wish to control behavior, say, to teach someone something, or increase the probability of a recurrence of that response we have to attend carefully to reinforcers. constitute a powerful force in the control of human behavior. Reinforcers are far stronger aspects of learning than is mere Teaching Implications: association of a prior stimulus with a following response, as in the Teachers in language classrooms often offer stimuli or reinforcers after classical conditioning model. a student performs in the foreign language. We are governed by the consequences of our behavior. What kind of stimuli have your teachers used to reward your efforts? Skinner‟s Operant Conditioning Skinner‟s Operant Conditioning 11 12 Operants Vs. Respondents: Operants Vs. Respondents: Operants are classes of responses. How about crying? Is it a respondent or an operant behavior? e.g. crying, sitting down, walking, and batting a baseball Crying can be respondent or operant behavior. All of them are sets of responses that are emitted (produced) and Sometimes crying is elicited in direct reaction to a hurt. governed by the consequences they produce. Often, however, it is an emitted response that produces the In contrast, respondents are sets of responses that are elicited by consequences of getting fed, cuddled, played with, comforted, etc. identifiable stimuli. Certain physical reflex actions are respondents. (e.g. the physical reflex after touching a hot pot) 2
Skinner‟s Operant Conditioning Skinner‟s Operant Conditioning 13 14 Such operant crying can be controlled. Reinforcers can be positive (praising) or negative (spanking) – punishment. If parents wait until a child's crying reaches a certain intensity before responding, loud crying is more likely to appear in the future. Punishment can be either: the withdrawal of a positive reinforcer If parents ignore crying (when they are certain that it is operant or the presentation of a punishing stimulus. crying) eventually the absence of reinforcers (carrying, cuddling, More commonly we think of punishment as the latter - a spanking, a giving the baby what he wants, etc) will extinguish the behavior. harsh rebuke - but the removal of certain positive reinforcers, such as a Operant crying depends on its effect on the parents and is maintained privilege, can also be considered a form of punishment. or changed according to their response to it. Skinner‟s Operant Conditioning Skinner‟s Operant Conditioning 15 16 The best method of extinction, said Skinner, is the absence of any Skinner felt that in the long run, punishment does not actually reinforcement. eliminate behavior, However, the active reinforcement of alternative responses hastens the but that mild punishment may be necessary for temporary suppression extinction. of an undesired response, although no punishment of such a kind So if a parent wishes the children would not kick a football in the living should be given without positively reinforcing alternate responses. room, Skinner would maintain that: instead of punishing them adversely for such behavior when it occurs, the parent should refrain from any negative reaction + should instead provide positive reinforcement for kicking footballs outside In this way, the undesired behavior will be effectively extinguished. Skinner‟s Operant Conditioning Skinner‟s Operant Conditioning 17 18 Skinner was extremely methodical and empirical in his theory of Programmed instruction is a teaching method (invented by the learning, to the point of being preoccupied with scientific controls. behaviorist B.F. Skinner) in which information to be learned is presented in a graded sequence of controlled steps. While many of his experiments were performed on lower animals, his theories had an impact on our understanding of human learning and Programmed instruction had its impact on foreign language teaching on education. though language is such complex behavior, penetrating so deeply into both cognitive and affective domains, that programmed instruction in Following Skinner's model, one is led to believe that almost any subject languages was limited to very specialized aspects of language. matter can be taught effectively and successfully by a carefully designed program of step-by-step reinforcement (Programmed instruction). 3
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