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. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Typological studies with passive/antipassive as an example Irina Burukina irine-bu@caesar.elte.hu *** Irina Burukina (irine-bu@caesar.elte.hu)Typological studies with passive/antipassive as an

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Typological studies with passive/antipassive as an example

Irina Burukina

irine-bu@caesar.elte.hu

***

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This lecture is about

  • 1. Typology

What is linguistic typology

  • 2. Examples of linguistic typologies

Word order typology Morphological typology Morphosyntactic typology: Nominative vs. ergative languages

  • 3. Voices from a typological perspective

Voice Passive Antipassive

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What is linguistic typology

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References

The Oxford Handbook of Linguistic Typology. 2010. edited by Jae Jung Song Pereltsvaig, Asya. 2012. Languages of the World. An Introduction. Croft, William. 1990, 2003. Typology and Universals. Nichols, Johanna. 1992. Linguistic Diversity in Space and Time. World Atlas of Language Structures (WALS) – https://wals.info/

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Linguistic typology

Comparative study of human languages: Comparing languages with each other with respect to a given linguistic phenomenon. Classifying observed crosslinguistic variation into types. Formulating generalizations over the distribution of linguistic patterns across the languages of the world and their relationship to other patterns. – universals and parameters

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Greenberg’s universals

Greenberg (1963): What is possible/impossible in human language? Why? Examples of Greenberg’s universals: All languages with dominant VSO order have SVO as an alternative or as the only alternative basic order. With overwhelmingly more than chance frequency, languages with dominant order VSO have the adjective after the noun. If a language is exclusively suffjxing, it is postpositional; if it is exclusively prefjxing, it is prepositional. Whenever the verb agrees with a nominal subject or nominal object in gender, it also agrees in number. More: https://www.linguisticsociety.org/sites/default/fjles/e-learning/GreenbergUniversals.pdf

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Linguistic Typology

What you compare and how: ← Data samples are important Difgerent language families, Difgerent regions.

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Word order typology

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Word order typology

← The ordering of subject, object, and verb in a transitive clause, more spe- cifjcally declarative clauses in which both the subject and object involve a noun (and not just a pronoun). (1) [The dog] chased [the cat]. S(ubject) V(erb) O(bject) – SVO

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Word Order Typology

WALS: 1376 languages Subject-object-verb (SOV) 564 Subject-verb-object (SVO) 488 Verb-subject-object (VSO) 95 Verb-object-subject (VOS) 25 Object-verb-subject (OVS) 11 Object-subject-verb (OSV) 4 Lacking a dominant word order 189

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Word Order Typology

WALS: SOV – blue circle, SVO – red circle, VSO – yellow circle, VOS – yellow diamond, OVS – red diamond, OSV – blue diamond. Link: https://wals.info/feature/81A#2/18.0/153.1

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Word Order Typology

WALS: without SVO and SOV languages.VSO – yellow circle, VOS – yellow diamond, OVS – red diamond, OSV – blue diamond. Link: https://wals.info/feature/81A#2/18.0/153.1

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Word Order Typology

Examples from https://wals.info/chapter/81 Japanese: SOV (2) John John ga subj tegami letter

  • bj

yon-da. read-pst ‘John read the letter.’ Irish: VSO (3) Léann read.pres [na the.pl sagairt] priest.pl [na the.pl leabhair]. book.pl ‘The priests are reading the books.’

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Word Order Typology

Examples from https://wals.info/chapter/81 Nias (Austronesian; Sumatra, Indonesia): VOS (4) i-rino 3sg.realis-cook vakhe abs.rice ina-gu mother-1sg.poss ‘My mother cooked rice.’ Hixkaryana (Carib; Brazil): OVS (5) toto man y-ahos฀-ye 3:3-grab-distant.pst kamara jaguar ‘The jaguar grabbed the man.’

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Morphological typology

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Morphological typology

← whether or not affjxation is allowed and degrees of morphological complexity (How many morphemes are in one word?) → index of synthesis ! Sometimes it is very diffjcult to determine whether an item is a word or a morpheme !

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Morphological typology

Languages: isolating (‘purely analytic’): frequently have tonal systems, serial verbs, fjxed word order, etc. analytic (some morphemes and compounding is allowed) synthetic: (lots of) bound morphemes

agglutinative: morphemes within words are easily parsed or “loosely” arranged; the morpheme boundaries are easy to identify. 1-to-many word to morpheme ratio; 1-to-1 morpheme to meaning; fusional: morphemes that combine multiple pieces of grammatical information;

polysynthetic: frequent incorporation, no overt arguments, etc.

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Morphological typology

Synthetic languages Agglutinative languages (6) Nə̈nə̈ they mə̈länem I.dat ə̑škal-vlä-štə̈-m cow-pl-poss.3pl-acc anžə̑ktenə̈t. showed Hill Mari (Uralic) ’They showed me their cows.’ Fusional languages (7) Latin

  • a. Marcus ferit Cornēliam.

Marcus hits Cornelia.

  • b. Cornēlia dedit Marcō dōnum/dōna.

Cornelia has given Marcus a gift/gifts.

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Morphological typology

Polysynthetic languages West Greenlandic:

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Morphosyntactic typology

Nominative vs. ergative languages

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Nominative vs. Ergative

If there are two nominal phrases in a clause, it would be good to indicate which

  • ne is the subject (structurally higher, more prominent) and which one is the
  • bject (structurally lower, less prominent) → We can mark one of them (and

leave the second one unmarked, default, for instance). First option – to mark the Object (i.e. the structurally lower NP). ← Nominative-Accusative languages

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Nominative vs. Ergative

Second option – to mark the Subject (i.e. the structurally higher NP). ← Ergative-Absolutive languages

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Ergative languages

Hunzib (Nakh-Daghestanian; eastern Caucasus): (8)

  • a. kid

girl y-ut’-ur. cl2-sleep-pst ‘The girl slept.’

  • b. oždi-l

boy-erg kid girl hehe-r. hit-pst ‘The boy hit the girl.’ Source for case: ergative – inherent, by v; absolutive – structural, by T or v. [Aldridge 2004; Legate 2008]

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Nominative vs. Ergative

Note: We can mark the nominals themselves (Case marking alignment) or we can add special agreement markers to the main verb that correspond to subject / object (verbal person marking alignment). Kaqchikel (Mayan, spoken in Guatemala) – ergative alignment on the verb. (9)

  • a. (Röj)

1pl y-at-q-oyoj icmp-abs.2sg-erg.1pl-call (rat) ‘We call you.’

  • b. (Rat)

2sg y-oj-aw-oyoj icmp-abs.1pl-erg.2sg-call (röj) 1pl ‘You call us.’ (10) y-oj-ok icmp-abs.1pl-enter ‘We enter.’ (11) y-at-ok icmp-abs.2sg-enter ‘You enter.’

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Nominative vs. Ergative

Case marking alignment – nominative (blue, 52) vs. ergative (red, 32) – accord- ing to WALS (190 languages in total). Link: https://wals.info/feature/98A#2/25.5/148.9

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Comparing a phenomenon in difgerent languages:

Passive/antipassive Voice

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Voice

Originally, Voice – particular alternations in the assignments of grammatical functions to the verb’s arguments. Voice (1) – change in the grammatical functions of the arguments. Voice (2) – valence alternation (decrease or increase of the number of arguments; see Levin and Rappaport 1995, Haspelmath and Müller-Bardey 2005, Reinhart and Siloni 2005, a.o.)

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Voice

In English: active Voice vs. passive Voice (12)

  • a. Mary wrote this book.

← active

  • b. This book was written by Mary.

← passive

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Voice

VoiceP (Kratzer 1996) / vP (Chomsky 1995; Marantz 1997) in the structure → Often interpreted as identical; a single projection for verbalizing and introducing the external argument. VoiceP/vP Voice′/v′ VP John see Voice0/v0 Mary Harley (2005): vP verbalizes, VoiceP introduces the external argument.

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What can we do with arguments?

1 Reduce the number of arguments:

Demotion of arguments passive, antipassive Deletion of arguments middle, antipassive

2 Increase the number of arguments

causative, applicative

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Demotion of arguments

Passive

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Passive

Passive – (1) the external argument is demoted, (2) an internal argument is promoted. (13)

  • a. Mary wrote this book.
  • b. This book was written (by Mary).

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Passive

The external argument is not deleted completely! (14)

  • a. This book was written (by Mary).
  • b. This book was written to impress everyone.
  • c. This book was written drunk.

(15)

  • a. The ship was sunk with a torpedo.
  • b. *The ship sank with a torpedo.

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Passive

Any thematic role of the external argument: (16)

  • a. The porcupine cage was welded by Elmer. (agent)
  • b. Elmer was moved by the porcupine’s reaction. (cause)
  • c. The porcupine crate was received by Elmer’s fjrm. (goal/recipient)
  • d. Elmer was seen by everyone who entered. (experiencer)

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Passive: (a) structural representation

Jaeggli (1986), Baker (1988), Baker, Johnson, Roberts (1989): TP T′ vP PP Mary by vP v′ VP ti see v0

  • en

T0 Johni Problems: incorporation of an external argument, theta-criterion (Bruening (2013) for an update).

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Passive: (a) structural representation

Problems with the external argument being an adjunct (Collins 2018) – binding: (17)

  • a. The packages were sent by the children to themselves.
  • b. *The packages were sent for the children to themselves.

Collins 2018, structure:

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Passive in ergative languages

Passive in ergative languages – Labrador Inuit (Smith 1982): (18)

  • a. Anguti-up

man-erg annak woman.abs taku-janga. see-3sg.subj:3sg.obj.prs ‘The man sees the woman.’

  • b. Annak

woman.abs (anguti-mut) man-dat taku-jau-juk. see-pass-3subj.prs ‘The woman is seen (by the man).’

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Passive in the world’s languages

WALS: 373 languages, + passive (red, 162), no passive (white, 211) Link: https://wals.info/feature/107A#2/16.6/148.9

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Passive: puzzles

Impersonal Passive – German (Steinbach 2002): (19) Es it wird aux hier here getanzt. danced ‘People are dancing here.’ Literally: ‘There is dancing here.’

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Passive: puzzles

In some languages it is possible to passivize intransitive verbs (Bolinger 1977, Bresnan 1982, Alsina 2009). (20)

  • a. The bed was slept in by George Washington.
  • b. George Washington slept in the bed.
  • c. The bed has been thoroughly rolled around on.
  • d. Someone has rolled around on the bed.

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Demotion/deletion of arguments

Antipassive

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Antipassive I

Antipassive – an internal argument is demoted. See Polinsky (2017) for an

  • verview.

Conative constructions in English: (21)

  • a. He ate the meat.
  • b. He shot the bear (#but he missed)
  • c. He ate at the meat.
  • d. He shot at the bear (but he missed)

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Antipassive I

Antipassive in other nominative languages – Russian: (22)

  • a. Mal’čik

boy.nom brosal threw kamni. stones.acc ‘The boy threw stones.’

  • b. Mal’čik

boy.nom brosal-sja threw-SJA kamnjami. stones.inst Literally: ‘The boy threw with stones.’

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Antipassive I

Antipassive is better recognized in ergative languages. An antipassivized predicate becomes intransitive → the ERG marker often dis- appears. Active: External argument = Subject, ERG Internal argument = Object, ABS Antipassive I: External argument = Subject, ABS Internal argument = case-less bare nominal phrase or an oblique phrase.

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Antipassive I

Antipassive in Kaqchikel (Mayan): (23)

  • a. Ri

det alaboni man.pl x-Ø-ki-tïk cmp-abs.3sg-erg.3pl-plant ri det ütz good ixim. corn ← Active ‘The men planted good corn.’

  • b. Ri

det alaboni man.pl x-e-tik-on cmp-abs.3pl-plant-ap (ixim). corn ‘The men planted (corn).’

  • c. Röj

we x-e-qa-tz’ët cmp-abs.3pl-erg.1pl-see ri oxi tz’i. det three dog We saw three dogs.’

  • d. Röj

we x-oj-tz’et-on cmp-abs.1pl-see-ap r-chin gen.3sg-of ri det

  • xi

three tz’i. dog ‘We saw three dogs.’ Literally: ‘We saw at three dogs.’

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Antipassive I: (a) structural representation

VoiceP Voice′ VP PP IntA P0 V0 VoiceAP ExtA

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Antipassive II

In some languages (for instance, Inuit (Eskimo-Aleut)), demotion of an internal argument is connected to Aktionsart. Active: External argument = Subject, ERG Internal argument = Object, ABS Aktionsart (for afgecting verbs): Telic Antipassive II: External argument = Subject, ERG Internal argument = an oblique phrase. Aktionsart (for afgecting verbs): Atelic

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Antipassive II

Warlpiri (Pama–Nyungan; Australia) (Polinsky 2017): (24)

  • a. njuntu-lu

2sg-erg npa-tju 2sg-1sg pantu-nu spear-pst ngatju. 1sg.abs ‘you speared me’ successfully; complete event with a result

  • b. njuntu-lu

2sg-erg npa-tju-la 2sg-1sg-ap pantu-nu spear-pst ngatju-ku 1sg-dat ‘you speared at me’ you tried; incomplete event without a result This is somewhat similar to English! Recall that in Kaqchikel there was no correlation between antipassive and aktionsart.

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Antipassive III

Active: External argument (active) = Subject, ERG Internal argument (passive) = Object, ABS Antipassive III: External argument = Subject, ABS Internal argument = deleted.

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Antipassive III

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Antipassive III: (a) structural representation

The traditional analysis: antipassive (AP) morpheme as an incorporated object (back to Baker (1988)). VoiceP Voice′ VP AP V0 Voice ExtA

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Antipassive in the world’s languages

WALS: 146 languages, + antipassive implicit (blue, 18), + antipassive oblique (ref, 30), no antipassive (white, 146). Link: https://wals.info/feature/108A#2/23.2/148.5

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Recommended readings

Recommended readings to better understand the material: Nominative vs. Ergative languages: WALS chapter by Bernard Comrie https://wals.info/chapter/98 Passive: Basic English Syntax with Exercises by Mark Newson et al., Chapter 5 freely available online, google it Passive: WALS chapter Passive by Anna Siewierska https://wals.info/chapter/107 Antipassive: Maria Polinsky. Antipassive. In: Handbook of ergativity available online at https://scholar.harvard.edu/mpolinsky/publications/antipassive Antipassive: WALS chapter Antipassive by Maria Polinsky https://wals.info/chapter/108

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