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Technology versus Technocracy Technology versus Technocracy in the Progressive Office, 1917- -1931 1931 in the Progressive Office, 1917 Thomas Haigh Thomas Haigh thaigh@acm.org www.tomandmaria.com www.tomandmaria.com/tom /tom

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Technology versus Technocracy Technology versus Technocracy in the Progressive Office, 1917 in the Progressive Office, 1917-

  • 1931

1931

Thomas Haigh Thomas Haigh thaigh@acm.org thaigh@acm.org www.tomandmaria.com www.tomandmaria.com/tom /tom

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Topic Topic

  • Relationship between

Relationship between

  • New administrative technologies of early 20

New administrative technologies of early 20th

th

century century and and

  • Office Management reform movement of

Office Management reform movement of 1910s and 1920s 1910s and 1920s

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New Office Technology, New Office Technology, popularized 1890 popularized 1890-

  • 1910

1910

  • Typewriters

Typewriters

  • Bookkeeping machines

Bookkeeping machines

  • Dictating machines

Dictating machines

  • Vertical files

Vertical files

  • Adding machines

Adding machines

  • Addressing Machines

Addressing Machines

  • Calculating Machines

Calculating Machines

  • Punched card machines

Punched card machines

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1: The Office Management 1: The Office Management Movement Movement

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The Office Management Movement The Office Management Movement

  • Originated in 1910s

Originated in 1910s

  • First US textbook on office management c. 1914

First US textbook on office management c. 1914

  • National Office Management Association founded

National Office Management Association founded 1919 1919

  • Recreation of

Recreation of “ “head clerk head clerk” ” as powerful executive as powerful executive

  • Use of

Use of “ “scientific scientific” ” and and “ “systematic systematic” ” techniques by techniques by experts experts

  • Reaction to influx of women to clerical posts?

Reaction to influx of women to clerical posts?

  • Related to

Related to

  • Increasing scale of American business

Increasing scale of American business

  • Systematic/Scientific Management movement

Systematic/Scientific Management movement

  • Personnel management movement

Personnel management movement

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W.H. Leffingwell W.H. Leffingwell

From an advertisement used to promote Leffingwell’s 1917 book Scientific Office Management

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Leffingwell Leffingwell’ ’s s System System

  • Explicitly derived from

Explicitly derived from Taylorism Taylorism

  • Careful layout of office, for efficient flow of work.

Careful layout of office, for efficient flow of work.

  • Division of tasks into simple units, scientific

Division of tasks into simple units, scientific measurement and analysis of each part to determine measurement and analysis of each part to determine “ “the one best way the one best way” ”. .

  • Standardization of all procedures, forms, letters,

Standardization of all procedures, forms, letters, equipment and personnel (test & train). equipment and personnel (test & train).

  • Use of appropriate machines and equipment to

Use of appropriate machines and equipment to maximize efficiency of each task. maximize efficiency of each task.

  • Payment of production bonus incentives to

Payment of production bonus incentives to supplement salaries. supplement salaries.

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Historical Treatment I Historical Treatment I

  • Labor & Social History

Labor & Social History

  • Large literature on women & office work

Large literature on women & office work

  • Davies, Strom,

Davies, Strom, Rotella Rotella, Fine , Fine

  • Leffingwell and

Leffingwell and “ “Taylorization Taylorization” ” feature feature prominently prominently

  • Departure point is Harry

Departure point is Harry Braverman

  • Braverman. Links

. Links

  • Deskilling and degradation of clerical work

Deskilling and degradation of clerical work

  • Feminization of clerical work

Feminization of clerical work

  • Mechanization of clerical work

Mechanization of clerical work

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Historical Treatment II Historical Treatment II

  • Business history: Rise of big business

Business history: Rise of big business

  • Systematization as crucial managerial tool

Systematization as crucial managerial tool

  • New communication technologies crucial (Yates)

New communication technologies crucial (Yates)

  • Importance of new class of middle

Importance of new class of middle management (Chandler) management (Chandler)

  • Treated as fairly homogenous (

Treated as fairly homogenous (Zunz Zunz) )

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The Executive Office Manager The Executive Office Manager

‘ ‘

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Laying Claim to Organizational Laying Claim to Organizational Design Design

“ “The strain put upon the office activities had The strain put upon the office activities had forced the management to remodel forced the management to remodel completely the organization completely the organization -

  • in response to

in response to necessity. necessity.” ”

Galloway, Galloway, Office Management: Its Principles and Practice

Office Management: Its Principles and Practice (Page 16)

(Page 16)

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2: My Analytical Findings 2: My Analytical Findings

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My Data My Data

  • Primarily from 1930

Primarily from 1930-

  • 31 Women

31 Women’ ’s Bureau Survey s Bureau Survey

  • Original notes from detailed visits

Original notes from detailed visits

  • Questions on machines used

Questions on machines used

  • Questions on office & personnel management

Questions on office & personnel management

  • 91 large offices in New York and Philadelphia

91 large offices in New York and Philadelphia

  • Mean size: 580 clerical workers

Mean size: 580 clerical workers

  • Office workforce 43% female

Office workforce 43% female

  • Service sector firms

Service sector firms

  • Insurance, Utility, Publishing, Bank, Investment

Insurance, Utility, Publishing, Bank, Investment

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My Findings: Technology My Findings: Technology

  • Office Machines widely used

Office Machines widely used

  • Bookkeeping: 74%

Bookkeeping: 74%

  • Calculating or Adding: 80%

Calculating or Adding: 80%

  • Dictating: 60%

Dictating: 60%

  • Addressing: 65%

Addressing: 65%

  • Many women employed as machine operators

Many women employed as machine operators

  • Of 22,817 women

Of 22,817 women

  • 2,620 typists

2,620 typists

  • 2,015 bookkeeping/adding/calculating operators

2,015 bookkeeping/adding/calculating operators

  • 543 telephone operators

543 telephone operators

  • Larger firms much

Larger firms much less

less feminized

feminized

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My Findings: Management My Findings: Management

  • At least one third had an

At least one third had an “ “office manager

  • ffice manager”

”

  • Of women

Of women’ ’s bureau sample, proportion with s bureau sample, proportion with

  • Any clerks on incentive pay: 9%.

Any clerks on incentive pay: 9%.

  • Formal training of any clerks: 10%.

Formal training of any clerks: 10%.

  • Testing (incl. Medical) of any clerks: 28%.

Testing (incl. Medical) of any clerks: 28%.

  • Laid off a single clerk through efficiency savings (including

Laid off a single clerk through efficiency savings (including machines): 10% machines): 10%

  • An office procedures staff: 15%

An office procedures staff: 15%

  • No correlation of technology < > management < > feminization of

No correlation of technology < > management < > feminization of firm firm

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Office Management Movement Office Management Movement

  • Office manager never becomes executive

Office manager never becomes executive

  • 1929 survey of National Office Management

1929 survey of National Office Management Association members finds that of 23 duties Association members finds that of 23 duties

  • Hiring/firing

Hiring/firing “ “clericals clericals” ”, buying equipment and , buying equipment and setting office routine are top duties setting office routine are top duties

  • Controlling budget and planning are bottom

Controlling budget and planning are bottom

  • Leffingwell in 1930s bemoans low status,

Leffingwell in 1930s bemoans low status, failure to attract able men failure to attract able men

  • Remains office personnel supervisor

Remains office personnel supervisor

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My Argument My Argument

  • I found that

I found that

  • Machines are ubiquitous

Machines are ubiquitous

  • Scientific office management is rare

Scientific office management is rare

  • Technology vs. Technocracy

Technology vs. Technocracy

  • Machines may be substitute for rationalization

Machines may be substitute for rationalization

  • Efficiency and systematization are partially

Efficiency and systematization are partially symbolic/ideological symbolic/ideological

  • Office managers are not the only source.

Office managers are not the only source.

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3: Science and Efficiency were 3: Science and Efficiency were Engineered In Engineered In

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“It is new and scientifically correct in every principle…. Scientifically designed after years of experimenting…. Statistics show that this amazing chair enables employees to double the work done ordinarily every day….”

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4: Machine Salesmen 4: Machine Salesmen Usurped Role of Consultant Usurped Role of Consultant

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“He is an expert on efficient business machinery and its application to modern business problems.”

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Automatic Results Guaranteed Automatic Results Guaranteed

“… “….Acme visible records .Acme visible records force force their owners their owners to to use use the facts the facts -

  • profit by them, save

profit by them, save money by them, stop losses before they money by them, stop losses before they get started get started… …. . Acme Acme always always delivers what it promises. Its delivers what it promises. Its successful operation in your business will successful operation in your business will be automatic be automatic…” …”

(Acme Visible Records advertisement, 1932) (Acme Visible Records advertisement, 1932)

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Guidelines for Index Visible card Guidelines for Index Visible card system salespeople system salespeople

  • Don

Don’ ’t criticize any current practice or t criticize any current practice or recommend radical reorganization or recommend radical reorganization or incentive pay. incentive pay.

  • Show

Show ‘ ‘an expressed favorable regard for an expressed favorable regard for the executives and company. the executives and company.’ ’

  • Don

Don’ ’t hang round t hang round -

  • ‘

‘executive interest cannot be sustained executive interest cannot be sustained

  • ver a prolonged period
  • ver a prolonged period’

’. .

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Leffingwell Attacks Quacks Leffingwell Attacks Quacks

“ “In almost every case, the [false purveyor of In almost every case, the [false purveyor of scientific management] has a panacea, a scientific management] has a panacea, a scheme, or system, which he claims will at scheme, or system, which he claims will at

  • nce cure all the ills of the office, and all he
  • nce cure all the ills of the office, and all he

desires is an opportunity to desires is an opportunity to ‘ ‘install install’ ’ this this system system… … . which is applied to the office on . which is applied to the office on the same principle that a porous plaster is the same principle that a porous plaster is applied to the back of a quack applied to the back of a quack’ ’s patient. s patient.” ”

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5: Dictating Inefficiency 5: Dictating Inefficiency – – A Case Study A Case Study

k k

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Experts Praise Dictating Experts Praise Dictating Machines Machines

“ “The most interesting development in recent The most interesting development in recent years in connection with correspondence has years in connection with correspondence has been the introduction of the dictating machine. been the introduction of the dictating machine. Its scope is not yet appreciated. It is likely to Its scope is not yet appreciated. It is likely to bulk almost as large as the telephone in business, bulk almost as large as the telephone in business, in the future. in the future.” ”

Galloway, Lee. Galloway, Lee. Office Management: Its Principles and Practice

Office Management: Its Principles and Practice. Roland

. Roland Press, 1919 (3 Press, 1919 (3rd

rd edition).

edition).

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Dictating Machines in Practice Dictating Machines in Practice

  • Dictating machines operators accounted

Dictating machines operators accounted for only 12% of all stenographers at firms for only 12% of all stenographers at firms using them. using them.

  • Very few firms had centralized all

Very few firms had centralized all stenography. stenography.

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2004, BHC Technology versus Technocracy Technology versus Technocracy 37 37

“What’s Wrong With Shorthand?

  • It’s the ‘ring and

wait’ system.

  • If only she could

take it as fast as I think.

  • Out sick, so I have

to wait.”

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2004, BHC Technology versus Technocracy Technology versus Technocracy 38 38

Why Firms Purchased Why Firms Purchased

  • “

“A A super super-

  • salesman

salesman has persuaded our has persuaded our executives that Ediphones can be used executives that Ediphones can be used here at a saving, but my machine is here at a saving, but my machine is going back next week. going back next week.” ”

  • Purchased

Purchased “ “for the sake of convenience, for the sake of convenience, so that a man could dictate at any time so that a man could dictate at any time that he wanted that he wanted” ”

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Implications Implications

  • Rethink assumptions about

Rethink assumptions about

  • Prevalence of scientific office management

Prevalence of scientific office management

  • Connection of systematization, efficiency &

Connection of systematization, efficiency & machinery. machinery.

  • Look for different identities and interests within

Look for different identities and interests within ranks of middle management from 1910s ranks of middle management from 1910s

  • nward
  • nward
  • Problematic nature of technical claims to

Problematic nature of technical claims to administrative expertise administrative expertise

  • Computer gives sturdier basis for expert power

Computer gives sturdier basis for expert power

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“…when Man was emerging from primeval chaos and becoming conscious of the first glimmering or order he apparently took no thought

  • f preserving a record of

his achievements and possessions, or accumulating knowledge, beyond the drawing of crude and grotesque

  • utlines of the things

around which his world revolved.”

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“The illustration shows clerks at work in an Assyrian government

  • ffice… On one corner of

the desk appears a box of styles with which the characters were made on soft clay tablets...

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Wellington Street West, Toronto - The Nerve Center of Modern Record Keeping Systems. “The building itself is a model of modern construction and possesses what our ancestors apparently thought superfluous in commercial buildings, abundance of light and air.”

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2004, BHC Technology versus Technocracy Technology versus Technocracy 45 45 Women as % of Clerical Workers by Size and Type of Firm

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 10 100 1000 10000 Size of clerical workforce (logarithmic scale) Women as % of clerical workers bank insurance invest mail order publishing utility