Refresh your memory! Using coloured pens, match up the defence - - PowerPoint PPT Presentation
Refresh your memory! Using coloured pens, match up the defence mechanism with its description and example! Activity Cognitive Perspective An approach to psychology that focuses on the ways in which we perceive, store Humanistic Psychodynamic
Using coloured pens, match up the defence mechanism with its description and example!
Activity
An approach to psychology that focuses
and respond to information.
Humanistic Sociocultural Cognitive Biological Behavioural Psychodynamic
Albert Bandura agrees with the behaviourist learning theoriests
he adds two important points: Mediational learning Processes?
responses
the process of observational learning
Children observe the people around them behaving in various ways. Individuals that are observed are called Models Social Learning Theory
Sample: Bandura, Ross and Ross (1961) tested 36 boys and 36 girls from the Stanford University Nursery School aged between 3 to 6 years old. The researchers tested the children for how aggressive they were by observing the children in the nursery and judged their aggressive behaviour on several 5-point rating scales. It was then possible to match the children in each group so that they had similar levels of aggression in their everyday
Bobo Doll Experiment
Method: The lab experiment was used in which the independent variable (type of model) was manipulated in three conditions:
Aggressive model shown to 24 children Non-aggressive model shown to 24 children No model (control group) – 24 children
Bobo Doll Experiment
72 children 24 aggressive role model Female model 6 boys 6 girls Male model 6 boys 6 girls 24 non- aggressive role model Female model 6 boys 6 girls Male model 6 boys 6 girls 24 control group [no model]
The experiment took place at three stages:
1.
The modelling stage
2.
The aggressive arousal stage
3.
The test for delayed imitation stage Bobo Doll Experiment
24 children watched a male or a female model behaving aggressively towards a toy called a ‘Bobo doll’. The adults attached the Bobo doll in a distinctive manner – they used a hammer in some cases and in other they threw the doll in the air and shouted ‘Pow Boom’. Another 24 children were exposed to non-aggressive model who played in a quite and subdued manner for 10 minutes (playing in a tinker toy and ignoring the bobo-doll). The final 24 children (12 boys and 12 girls) were not exposed to any model. They remain in a room full of toys and they plaued there independenty Stage 1: Modelling
At this stage, all children (including the control group) were subjected to ‘mild aggression arousal’. Each child was (separately) take to a room with relatively attractive toys. As soon as the child started playing with these toys, the experimental told the child that these were the experimental favourite and thus has decided to reserve them for other children! Stage 2: Aggressive Arousal
The next room contained some aggressive toys and some non-aggressive toys. The non-aggressive toys included: A tea set Crayons Plastic farm animals Three Bears The aggressive toys included: Dart guns Mallet Peg Board Three foot Bobo Doll The child was in the room for 20 minutes and their behaviour was observed and rated trough a one-way mirror. Observations were made at 5-second intervals therefore giving 240 responses for each child The experimenters also noted other behaviours that didn’t imitate that of the model such as punching the Bobo doll on the nose!
Stage 3: Test for delayed imitation
Children who observed aggressive model made far more imitative aggressive responses than those who were in the non-aggressive or control group
There was more partial and non-imitative aggression among those children who has observed aggressive behaviour, although the differences for non-imitative aggression were small
The girls in the aggressive model condition also showed more physical aggressive responses if the model was male, but more verbal responses if the model was female. However, the exception to this general pattern was the observation of how often they punched the bobo doll and in this case the effects of gender were reversed
Boys were more likely to imitate same-sex model than girls. The evidence for girls imitating same-sex model is not statistically significant.
Boys imitated more physically aggressive acts than girls. There was little differences in the verbal aggression between boys and girls
Bobo Doll Experiment
There are three advantages of an experimental method:
1.
Experiments are the only means by which cause and effect can be established
2.
It allows for precise control of variables. Many variables were controlled such as the gender of the model, the time children
3.
Experiments can be replicated. By using standardised procedures and instructions, replicability is possible.
Many psychologists are very critical of laboratory studies of imitation - in particular because they tend to have low ecological validity. The situation involves the child and an adult model, which is a very limited social situation and there is no interaction between the child and the model at any point; certainly the child has no chance to influence the model in any way. Also the model and the child are strangers. This, of course, is quite unlike 'normal' modeling, which often takes place within the family. LOW Ecological Validity
The social learning theory is often described as the bridge between traditional learning theory (i.e. behaviourism) and the cognitive approach because it focuses on how mental (cognitive factors) are involved in learning. Unlike Skinner, Bandura (1977) believes that humans are active information processors, and think about the relationship between their behaviour and its consequences. Observational learning could not
mediate (i.e. intervene) in the learning process to determine whether a new response is acquired.
stimulus in the environment The Black Box cannot be studied response behaviour
The Behavioural Perspective: only studies ‘observable/external behaviour The Cognitive Perspective: scientifically studies internal processes through experimental methods
Input in the environment Mediational Processes mental event (e.g. memory) Output behaviour Behaviourist versus Cognitive Perspectives
Focuses on the observed
behaviour itself
Learners respond to
environmental stimuli (e.g. food, toy, an image)
Knowledge is acquired Reinforcements strengthen
the behaviour
Focuses on the
knowledge underpinning learning
Learners initiate
learning experiences
Knowledge is
constructed
Reinforcements are
sources of feedback
Behaviourist versus Cognitive Perspectives
The use of the computer as a tool for thinking about how the human mind handles information.
The Computer Analogy
Process
INPUT OUTPUT
In this process, hardware would be -------------- and software would be -----------------------------
In this process, hardware would be the brain and software would be mental processes
In which ways do the brain and computer differ?!
Perception Attention Memory Language Thinking Problem Solving
Perception Attention Memory A primary focus of research Language Thinking Problem Solving
A man went into the shop up the road. How was he dressed? Dark clothes Light clothes Jeans I'm not sure
Well done if your choice was dark cloths, if Not do not worry, most people did not focus on this bit!
A woman parked her car in the street shortly before the crime took place, did you notice her car? Was it
Blonde hair Dark hair Red hair I am not sure!
She was blonde
Here are some mugshots, can you pick the first man you saw ran out of the shop?!
The criminal is none of them!
Aims: to establish whether people may be persuaded by misleading questions to remember false details, Loftus specifically wanted to see whether mentioning an object that was not present in a film they participants watched would influence participants remember it later as present. Methods: 150 students were shown a short piece of film showing a white car that was involved in a crash. They then answered ten questions about the film. Nine of these questions were the same for all participants but one question differed. Half the participants received the question: ‘how fast was the white car going when it passed the barn?’, the remaining participants instead received: ‘how fast was the car going while travelling along the country road?’ One week later the participants returned and were given a further ten questions about the film, one of which was ‘did you see a barn?’
Key Application: eyewitness testimony Loftus (1975) Leading Questions and the Eyewitness Report. Cognitive psychology 7, 560-572
NOTE: there was no barn in the film and the question mentioning a barn was meant to mislead participants
Results: as expected, participants who had previously had the question ‘how fast was the white car going when it passed the barn?’ where much more likely to respond that they had seen a barn. Seventeen percent of these reported seeing a barn as opposed to less than three percent of the control group who had received the questions not mentioning a barn. Discussion: this study shows clearly how witnesses can be deliberately
eyewitness testimony
Key Application: eyewitness testimony Loftus (1975) Leading Questions and the Eyewitness Report. Cognitive psychology 7, 560-572
The most widely accepted information- process model within this approach is called the ‘stage theory’ which is based on the work of Atkinson and Shriffin (1968).
The multi- store model
The Multi Store memory model is a structural model composing of 3 completely separate memory stores where information passes across in a linear way. The 3 stores are:
The Sensory memory store The Short-term memory store The Long-term memory store
Sensory memory is the shortest-term element of
sensory information after the original stimuli have
through the five senses of sight, hearing, smell, taste and touch, which are retained accurately, but very
and remember what it looked like with just a second of observation is an example of sensory memory. Sensory Memory (<1 second)
Visual discrimination issues Visual motor processing issues Visual spatial issues Letter and symbol reversal issues
Dyslexia Dyscalculia Dyspraxia ADHD Autism
Remember these figures in the same order!
Short-term memory
Short-term memory
Short-term memory
Short-term memory
Short-term memory
Long-term memory is, obviously enough, intended for storage of information over a long period of time.
Long-term memory Scope:
Long-term Memory Explicit Memory Declarative Episodic Memory Semantic Memory Implicit Memory Procedural Memory
Long-term Memory
Life time
Explicit Memory
conscious
Declarative Memory
Facts and Events
Episodic Memory
Events and experiences
Semantic Memory
Facts and concepts
Implicit Memory
unconscious
Procedural Memory
Tasks and Skills
Very fast input Limited capacity 5-20 seconds duration Contains words,
images, ideas and sentences
Immediate retrieval
Relatively slow input Practically unlimited
capacity
Practically unlimited
duration
Contains networks
and schemata
Retrieval depends on
connections
1.Evening
3.Salt
21.Peper
Sensory Memory
(<1 second)
Short-term Memory
(<1 minute)
Working Memory
Operating
Long-term Memory
Life time
Explicit Memory
conscious
Declarative
Facts and events
Episodic Memory
Events and experiences
Semantic Memory
Facts and concepts
Implicit Memory
unconscious
Procedural Memory
Tasks and Skills
Activity: Provide an example of each type of memory!
The most basic definition: thinking about thinking Another one is the concept of learning how to learn! Metacognition
What would help you remember the facts for today?! (Mnemonics)
What about the notes you have taking, have you used colour codes, simples and even words from your native language to help you understand and recall these?
Strengths:
Like the behavioural perspective the cognitive approach is
scientific; theories are testable and are backed up with a solid body of research
Has numerous practical applications such as eyewitness
testimony in courtrooms
Introduces mediational mental processes that bridges
between stimulus and response
Has been successfully combined to other approaches in
Strengths and Limitations of this approach
Limitations:
The metaphor of ‘man as machine’ is seen as simplistic
and reductionist, ignoring emotional, motivational and social factors in human behaviour
The emphasis on laboratory experiments means that the
findings may not reflect everyday life; lacking ecological validity
The approach explains how cognitive processes happen
but tends to ignore why
It can be difficult to establish cause and effect correlations
when applying cognitive models of psychology. For example, Beck’s model of depression sees faulty information-processing as the cause of depression when it may be as much one of the symptoms
Strengths and Limitations of this approach
Cognitive Behavioural Therapy
How does a depressed mind process information?
Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) is a talking therapy that can help you manage your problems by changing the way you think and behave. It is most commonly used to treat anxiety and depression, but can be useful for other mental and physical health problems.
Cognitive Behavioural Therapy
downward arrow and thought challenging techniques