STRUCTURAL ACCOUNTS OF MEMORY Lecturer: Dr. Benjamin Amponsah, Dept. of Psychology, UG, Legon Contact Information: bamponsah@ug.edu.gh College of Education School of Continuing and Distance Education 2014/2015 – 2016/2017
SESSION OVERVIEW • This section aims at helping you to appreciate human memory in terms of its structures of sensory memory, short term memory and long term memory. This viewpoint maintains that memory can be considered as a system of components that have both structural and process aspects. Structurally, memory seems to differ notably in their nature and organization. By process aspects we are referring to the cognitive operations that transferred and altered the memories stored in different locations Slide 2
Session Objectives At the end of the session, the student will be able to • Understand the structures of memory including sensory memory, short-term memory and long-term memory. • Describe the relationship that exist between the structures and their interdependence. • Understand that cognitive operations are brought to bear on the information before it can be transferred or evacuated from one location to another. Slide 3
Session Outline The key topics to be covered in the session are as follows: • Topic One: Structural Accounts of Memory • Topic Two: Sensory Memory (Register) • Topic Three: Short-term Memory • Topic Four: Separation of STM and LTM Memories • Topic Five: Long-term Memory Slide 4
Reading List • Ashcraft, M. H. (2006). Cognition (4 th edn.), London: Pearson Education Int. • Galotti, K. M. (2004). Cognitive Psychology: In and out of the laboratory (3 rd Edn.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. • Hunt, R. R. & Ellis, H. C. (1999). Fundamentals of Cognitive Psychology (6 th edn.), New York: McGraw-Hill. • Willingham, D, B. (2001). Cognition: The thinking animal . NJ: Prentice-Hall. Slide 5
Topic One STRUCTURAL ACCOUNTS OF MEMORY Slide 6
Structural Accounts of Memory • The information processing viewpoint maintains that memory can be thought of as a system of interrelated components that have both structural and process aspects. • By structural aspects we mean memories seem to differ markedly in their nature, duration and organization of information. • For example, if we consider the duration of memory task, we realize that if you are distracted while trying to memorize something unfamiliar, the memory will certainly vanish, indicating that memory is fragile. Slide 7
Structural Accounts of Memory • Information kept in memory therefore seems to differ in terms of the nature of the code, duration, capacity and so on. • Other memories seem to be much more permanent, suggesting that memories are stored in different locations. • We may hang on to memory stored permanently but memory has to go to a temporary location first. • By process we are referring to cognitive operations that transferred and altered the memories stored in different locations. Slide 8
Information Processing Position • The information processing paradigm is the most popular theory in the study of cognition. • In the 1950s, Communication science and Computer science began to develop and became popular. • Several researchers then began speculating that human thought process could be analyzed from similar perspective (Reed, 1997). Slide 9
Information Processing Position • The influence of computerization is exerted at two levels; ● One is to provide a metaphorical language (figurative or symbolism that may not literally represent real things) and ● Second is a more specific use of the computer program as a theory of the mind . Similarity in storage function and Search process – The storage function of the computer is also analogous to the process we normally think of as memory. The stored information can later be retrieved, used to solve a problem, and then expressed as output from the computer. Slide 10
Information Processing Position • It is also striking to see the similarity in the search process and the problem-solving activities of the computer and human beings. Note: • Using the computer as an analogy, however, is far from suggesting that the human brain works like a computer. • The brain processes of perception, thinking, memory and language are much more complex than those of any existing computer. • However, the computer model provides a general way of thinking about human cognitive functioning. Slide 11
Summary • In summary the two important components of the information processing approach assume that: (a) mental process can best be understood by comparing it with the operations of a working computer. (b) mental process can be interpreted as information progressing through the system in a series of stages , one step at a time. Slide 12
What is Information? • In cognitive psychology, information refers to any attended input, idea, image, fact, knowledge etc. • Information represents things we see, hear, feel and so on. • To process means to move toward some goal by going through a series of stages or sequence of acts or actions until the desired outcome is reached. • These actions may produce a change or development. Slide 13
Basic Parts of Information Processing 1. The theory considers memory as a system of interrelated components. 2. Each component referred to as storage is capable of processing particular types of cognitive codes (representation of physical energy by the nervous system that is potentially capable of entering our awareness). 3. The information we receive from the environment (e.g., light waves) are precategorical (no meaning), which means that the physical energy has not been categorized. 4. Psychological processes must interact with the physical energy in order to add meaning to sensory experiences. Slide 14
Basic Parts of Information Processing ● The question is why is it difficult to identify an object when cues are based solely on visual description of that object? (a) The difficulty is due in part to the fact that visual properties do not exhaust the meaning of an object. (b) When we extract meaning from visual experience, we actually add more information to that experience. That is, the visual properties of an apple activate other knowledge of apples such as taste, smell, color and information such as fruit . Slide 15
Basic Parts of Information Processing • 5. Finally, the information processing theory holds that cognitive codes can be transferred from one storage to another storage using controlled processes (effortful cognitive processes that require the allocation of attention to sustain them). • A model of this representation showing the interrelated components called storages and the links are demonstrated in Figure 1.2. Slide 16
Basic Parts of Information Processing Figure 1- 2 Atkinson and Shiffrin’s (1964) Stages of Memory (also referred to as Modal Model Theory of Memory Slide 17
The Components • The first of the storages is known as the sensory register. This is where the feature detection and pattern recognition processes rapidly produce a cognitive code that can be stored for a brief period. Slide 18
The Components • The modal model theory shows three different storages that differ in their capacities, durations, operating characteristics (type of codes and mechanism of loss). • This multi-store model became very popular within the emerging field of cognitive psychology. Because Atkinson and Shiffrin’s model became standard approach, it is often called the “ modal model ”. • The theory proposed that memory can be understood as a sequence of discrete steps , in which information is transferred from one storage area to another and this was consistent with the information processing position . Slide 19
The Components • Sensory memory is assumed to possess a large-capacity storage system that records information from each of the senses with reasonable accuracy. • The stored information is next transferred to other stores like the Short-term memory , where certain cognitive processes are brought to bear on the information. Slide 20
Summary • Structures of the memory system • The information processing position in terms of the assumptions made. • Atkinson and Shiffrin’s model, also referred to as the modal model or the stage model • You have also become familiar with the terms (storages) sensory memory, short-term memory and long-term memory, which are of course interrelated in one model. Slide 21
Topic Two SENSORY MEMORY (REGISTER) Slide 22
The Sensory Storage – The sensory store or sensory register is a memory system designed to store a record of the information received by the receptor cells. – Receptor cells are the specialized sense organs of the ear, eye, nose, tongue and skin, which respond to physical energy from the environment. – Firing the receptor cells begins the psychological processes of seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting and feeling. – Once these receptor cells are activated, the record of this activation is preserved or stored in the sensory registers. – The stored record is known as the sensory trace . Slide 23
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