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❙✉r✈✐✈❛❧ ❞❛t❛ ❛♥❛❧②s✐s ❙t❛t✐st✐❝❛❧ ♠♦❞❡❧❧✐♥❣✿ ❚❤❡♦r② ❛♥❞ ♣r❛❝t✐❝❡ ●✐❧❧❡s ●✉✐❧❧♦t ❣✐❣✉❅✐♠♠✳❞t✉✳❞❦ ◆♦✈❡♠❜❡r ✷✹✱ ✷✵✶✹ ●✐❧❧❡s ●✉✐❧❧♦t ✭❣✐❣✉❅✐♠♠✳❞t✉✳❞❦✮ ❙✉r✈✐✈❛❧ ❞❛t❛ ◆♦✈❡♠❜❡r ✷✹✱ ✷✵✶✹ ✶ ✴ ✷✵

■♥tr♦❞✉❝t✐♦♥ ✶ ❊st✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ❢♦r s✉r✈✐✈❛❧ ❞❛t❛ ✷ ▼♦❞❡❧❧✐♥❣ s✉r✈✐✈❛❧ ❞❛t❛ ✸ ❘❡❢❡r❡♥❝❡s ✹ ●✐❧❧❡s ●✉✐❧❧♦t ✭❣✐❣✉❅✐♠♠✳❞t✉✳❞❦✮ ❙✉r✈✐✈❛❧ ❞❛t❛ ◆♦✈❡♠❜❡r ✷✹✱ ✷✵✶✹ ✷ ✴ ✷✵

■♥tr♦❞✉❝t✐♦♥ ❙✉r✈✐✈❛❧ ❞❛t❛ ❍✐st♦r✐❝❛❧❧②✿ ❞❛t❛ ♦❝❝✉r✐♥❣ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❛♥❛❧②s✐s ♦❢ t✐♠❡ ❜❡❢♦r❡ ❞❡❛t❤ ♦❢ ❛ ❧✐✈✐♥❣ ♦r❣❛♥✐s♠ ✭❤❡♥❝❡ ❛❧❧ t❤❡ s✐♥✐st❡r ✈♦❝❛❜✉❧❛r②✮ t✐♠❡ ❜❡❢♦r❡ ❢❛✐❧✉r❡ ♦❢ ❛♥ ❡♥❣✐♥❡❡r✐♥❣ s②st❡♠ ✭❡✳❣✳ ❡❧❡❝tr✐❝ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t✮ ■♥ ♠♦❞❡r♥ ❞❛②s ❞❛t❛ ✢♦♦❞✿ ❛♥② ❦✐♥❞ ♦❢ t✐♠❡ ❞❛t❛✳ ♠❡❞✐❝✐♥❡✿ ❧✐❢❡ ❞✉r❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛ ♣❛t✐❡♥t ❢r♦♠ ✐♥✐t✐❛❧ ✐♥❢❡❝t✐♦♥ ❜② ❛ ✈✐r✉s ❡♥❣✐♥❡❡r✐♥❣✿ ❧✐❢❡ ❞✉r❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛♥ ❡❧❡❝tr♦♥✐❝ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t s♦❝✐❛❧ s❝✐❡♥❝❡✿ t✐♠❡ ♦❢ ✉♥❡♠♣❧♦②♠❡♥t ✇❡❜ ❞❛t❛ ❛♥❛❧②s✐s✿ t✐♠❡ s♣❡♥t ❜r♦✇s✐♥❣ ❛ ❝❡rt❛✐♥ ✇❡❜ ♣❛❣❡ ●✐❧❧❡s ●✉✐❧❧♦t ✭❣✐❣✉❅✐♠♠✳❞t✉✳❞❦✮ ❙✉r✈✐✈❛❧ ❞❛t❛ ◆♦✈❡♠❜❡r ✷✹✱ ✷✵✶✹ ✸ ✴ ✷✵

■♥tr♦❞✉❝t✐♦♥ ●♦❛❧s ♦❢ s✉r✈✐✈❛❧ ❞❛t❛ ❛♥❛❧②s✐s ■ ❉❡s❝r✐❜❡ ✈❛r✐❛t✐♦♥ ❘❡❧❛t❡ ♦❜s❡r✈❡❞ t✐♠❡s t♦ r❡❧❡✈❛♥t ❝♦✈❛r✐❛t❡s ♠❡❞✐❝✐♥❡✿ ❨ ✄ ❞r✉❣ tr❡❛t♠❡♥t ✰ ♣❛t✐❡♥t✬s ❣❡♥❡t✐❝ ❜❛❝❦❣r♦✉♥❞ ✰ ❡♥✈✐r♦♥♠❡♥t❛❧ ❢❛❝t♦rs ❡♥❣✐♥❡❡r✐♥❣✿ ❨ ✄ ♠❛♥✉❢❛❝t✉r✐♥❣ ♣r♦❝❡ss ✰ ✉s❛❣❡ ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥s ❥♦❜ ♠❛r❦❡t ❛♥❛❧②s✐s✿ ❨ ✄ ❡❞✉❝❛t✐♦♥ ❧❡✈❡❧ ✰ s❦✐❧❧s ✇❡❜ ❞❛t❛ ❛♥❛❧②s✐s✿ ❨ ✄ ❛❣❡ ✰ ❣❡♥❞❡r ✰ ❧✐✈✐♥❣ ❛r❡❛ ✰ ✐♥❝♦♠❡ Pr❡❞✐❝t ●✐❧❧❡s ●✉✐❧❧♦t ✭❣✐❣✉❅✐♠♠✳❞t✉✳❞❦✮ ❙✉r✈✐✈❛❧ ❞❛t❛ ◆♦✈❡♠❜❡r ✷✹✱ ✷✵✶✹ ✹ ✴ ✷✵

■♥tr♦❞✉❝t✐♦♥ ◆❡❡❞ ❢♦r ♥❡✇ t♦♦❧s❄ ▲✐❢❡ ❞✉r❛t✐♦♥s ❛r❡ ❃✵ ❛♥❞ s❦❡✇❡❞ ✭❛ss②♠❡tr✐❝ ❞✐str✐❜✮✳ ❲❤❛t❡✈❡r ②♦✉ s❛② ✉♥❞❡r ❛ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐t② ❛ss✉♠♣t✐♦♥ ✐s ❧✐❦❡❧② t♦ ❜❡ ✇r♦♥❣ ✭✉♥r❡❛❧✐st✐❝ ♣✲✈❛❧✉❡s✱ ✐♥❛❝❝✉r❛t❡ ♣r❡❞✐❝t✐♦♥s✱ ✐♥❛♣♣r♦♣r✐❛t❡ ♠♦❞❡❧ s❡❧❡❝t✐♦♥ ❡t❝✳✳✳✮ ▲✐❢❡ ❞✉r❛t✐♦♥ ❞❛t❛ ❛r❡ ♦❢t❡♥ ❝❡♥s♦r❡❞ r✐❣❤t ❝❡♥s♦r❡❞✱ ❡✳❣✳ ❛♥ ❡❧❡❝tr✐❝❛❧ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t ❧❛st❡❞ ♠♦r❡ t❤❛♥ t❤❡ ❞✉r❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❡①♣❡r✐♠❡♥t ❧❡❢t ❝❡♥s♦r❡❞❀ ❡✳❣✳ ❛ ♣❛t✐❡♥t ✇❛s ❛❧r❡❛❞② ✐❧❧ ✇❤❡♥ ❤❡ ❡♥t❡r❡❞ t❤❡ st✉❞② ●✐❧❧❡s ●✉✐❧❧♦t ✭❣✐❣✉❅✐♠♠✳❞t✉✳❞❦✮ ❙✉r✈✐✈❛❧ ❞❛t❛ ◆♦✈❡♠❜❡r ✷✹✱ ✷✵✶✹ ✺ ✴ ✷✵

■♥tr♦❞✉❝t✐♦♥ ❈❡♥s♦r❡❞ ❞❛t❛ ✭❘❡♣r✐♥t❡❞ ❢r♦♠ ✇✐❦✐♣❡❞✐❛✮ ●✐❧❧❡s ●✉✐❧❧♦t ✭❣✐❣✉❅✐♠♠✳❞t✉✳❞❦✮ ❙✉r✈✐✈❛❧ ❞❛t❛ ◆♦✈❡♠❜❡r ✷✹✱ ✷✵✶✹ ✻ ✴ ✷✵

❊st✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ❢♦r s✉r✈✐✈❛❧ ❞❛t❛ Pr♦❜❛❜✐❧✐t② ❝♦♥❝❡♣ts ❢♦r s✉r✈✐✈❛❧ ❞❛t❛ ❛♥❛❧②s✐s ❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥✿ ❙✉r✈✐✈♦r ✭♦r s✉r✈✐✈❛❧✮ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ S ( y ) ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛s t❤❡ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐t② ♦❢ s✉r✈✐✈✐♥❣ ❜❡②♦♥❞ y S ( y ) = P ( Y > y ) = 1 − P ( Y ≤ y ) = 1 − F ( y ) ●✐❧❧❡s ●✉✐❧❧♦t ✭❣✐❣✉❅✐♠♠✳❞t✉✳❞❦✮ ❙✉r✈✐✈❛❧ ❞❛t❛ ◆♦✈❡♠❜❡r ✷✹✱ ✷✵✶✹ ✼ ✴ ✷✵

❊st✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ❢♦r s✉r✈✐✈❛❧ ❞❛t❛ Pr♦❜❛❜✐❧✐t② ❝♦♥❝❡♣ts ❢♦r s✉r✈✐✈❛❧ ❞❛t❛ ❛♥❛❧②s✐s ❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥✿ ❍❛③❛r❞ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ h ( y ) = ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐t② ❞❡♥s✐t② ♦❢ ✏❞❡❛t❤✑ ✐♥ ✐♥✜♥✐t❡s✐♠❛❧ s♠❛❧❧ t✐♠❡ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ y ❛♥❞ y + δy ❣✐✈❡♥ s✉r✈✐✈❛❧ ✉♣ t♦ t✐♠❡ y ❉❡♥♦t❡ E = { y < Y ≤ y + δy } ❛♥❞ F = { Y > y } ✱ t❤❡♥ δyP ( E | F ) = 1 1 P ( E ∩ F ) h ( y ) ≈ δy P ( F ) 1 P ( y < Y ≤ y + δy ) = 1 F ( y + δy ) − F ( y ) = δy S ( y ) δy S ( y ) ❧❡tt✐♥❣ δy − → 0 ✇❡ ❣❡t f ( y ) h ( y ) = S ( y ) ●✐❧❧❡s ●✉✐❧❧♦t ✭❣✐❣✉❅✐♠♠✳❞t✉✳❞❦✮ ❙✉r✈✐✈❛❧ ❞❛t❛ ◆♦✈❡♠❜❡r ✷✹✱ ✷✵✶✹ ✽ ✴ ✷✵

❊st✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ❢♦r s✉r✈✐✈❛❧ ❞❛t❛ ❊st✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ s✉r✈✐✈❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❊st✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ s✉r✈✐✈❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❢♦r ✉♥❝❡♥s♦r❡❞ ❞❛t❛ ❋♦r ❛ s❡t ♦❢ ✉♥❝❡♥s♦r❡❞ s✉r✈✐✈❛❧ t✐♠❡s ( y 1 , ..., y n ) ✱ S ( y ) = P ( Y > y ) ❝❛♥ ❜❡ ❡st✐♠❛t❡❞ ❜② S ( y ) = # { y i , y i > y } � n ❚❤✐s ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✐s ♥♦♥✲✐♥❝r❡❛s✐♥❣✱ ♣✐❡❝❡✇✐s❡ ❝♦♥st❛♥t ❛♥❞ ❞✐s❝♦♥t✐♥✉♦✉s✳ ❚❤✐s ❡st✐♠❛t♦r ❞♦❡s ♥♦t r❡❧② ♦♥ ❛♥② ❛ss✉♠♣t✐♦♥ r❡❣❛r❞✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❞✐str✐❜✉t✐♦♥ ♦❢ s✉r✈✐✈❛❧ t✐♠❡s✱ ✐t ✐s ❦♥♦✇♥ ❛s ❛ ♥♦♥✲♣❛r❡♠❡tr✐❝ ❡st✐♠❛t♦r ✳ ❆s s✉❝❤✱ ✐t ✐s ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ❜✉t ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡s s❧♦✇❧② t♦ t❤❡ tr✉❡ s✉r✈✐✈❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✭✇❤❡♥ t❤❡ ❞❛t❛ s✐③❡ n ✐♥❝r❡❛s❡s✮ ❚❤❡ ❡st✐♠❛t❛r ❝❛♥ ❜❡ ✐♠♣r♦✈❡❞ ✐❢ s♦♠❡ ❦♥♦✇❧❡❞❣❡ ✐s ❛✈❛✐❧❛❜❧❡ ♦♥ t❤❡ ❞✐str✐❜✉t✐♦♥ ♦❢ s✉r✈✐✈❛❧ t✐♠❡s ●✐❧❧❡s ●✉✐❧❧♦t ✭❣✐❣✉❅✐♠♠✳❞t✉✳❞❦✮ ❙✉r✈✐✈❛❧ ❞❛t❛ ◆♦✈❡♠❜❡r ✷✹✱ ✷✵✶✹ ✾ ✴ ✷✵

❊st✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ❢♦r s✉r✈✐✈❛❧ ❞❛t❛ ❊st✐♠❛t♦r ♦❢ t❤❡ s✉r✈✐✈❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ❢♦r ❝❡♥s♦r❡❞ ❞❛t❛ ▲❡t ✉s ❛ss✉♠❡ t❤❛t ♦✉r ❞❛t❛s❡t ❝♦♥s✐sts ♦❢ ✺ ♦❜s❡r✈❛t✐♦♥s✱ ♦♥❡ ♦❢ t❤❡♠ ❜❡✐♥❣ ❝❡♥s♦r❡❞ ✇✐t❤ ✈❛❧✉❡s (1 , 3 , 3 , 5 + , 7) ✳ ❍❡r❡✱ 5 + ♠❡❛♥s t❤❛t t❤❡ tr✉❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ✐s ❛t ❧❡❛st ❛s ❧❛r❣❡r ❛s 5 ●✐❧❧❡s ●✉✐❧❧♦t ✭❣✐❣✉❅✐♠♠✳❞t✉✳❞❦✮ ❙✉r✈✐✈❛❧ ❞❛t❛ ◆♦✈❡♠❜❡r ✷✹✱ ✷✵✶✹ ✶✵ ✴ ✷✵