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❇♦r❞❡rs ❲✐t❤✐♥ t❤❡ ❊✉r♦♣❡❛♥ ❙✐♥❣❧❡ ▼❛r❦❡t ✭Pr❡❧✐♠✐♥❛r② ❘❡s✉❧ts✮

❙❤❛✇♥ ❲✳ ❚❛♥

❚❤❡ ❲♦r❧❞ ❇❛♥❦

◗✉❛♥t✐❢②✐♥❣ ◆♦♥✲❚❛r✐✛ ❇❛rr✐❡rs t♦ ❚r❛❞❡ ❛♥❞ ■♥✈❡st♠❡♥ts P❘❖◆❚❖ ❆♥♥✉❛❧ ❈♦♥❢❡r❡♥❝❡ ✷✻✲✷✼ ❋❡❜r✉❛r②✱ ✷✵✶✻

✶ ✴ ✷✼

❊✉r♦♣❡❛♥ ❙✐♥❣❧❡ ▼❛r❦❡t ❛♥❞ ◆♦♥✲❚❛r✐✛ ❇❛rr✐❡rs

✏❚❤❡ ❙✐♥❣❧❡ ▼❛r❦❡t r❡❢❡rs t♦ ✳✳✳ ♦♥❡ t❡rr✐t♦r② ✇✐t❤♦✉t ❛♥② ✐♥t❡r♥❛❧ ❜♦r❞❡rs ♦r ♦t❤❡r r❡❣✉❧❛t♦r② ♦❜st❛❝❧❡s t♦ t❤❡ ❢r❡❡ ♠♦✈❡♠❡♥t ♦❢ ❣♦♦❞s ❛♥❞ s❡r✈✐❝❡s✑ ■♥ ✶✾✾✺✱ t❤❡ ❙❝❤❡♥❣❡♥ ❆❣r❡❡♠❡♥t ❛❜♦❧✐s❤❡❞ ❜♦r❞❡r ❝♦♥tr♦❧s ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ ✷✻ ❊✉r♦♣❡❛♥ ❝♦✉♥tr✐❡s✳ ❉❡s♣✐t❡ r❡♠♦✈✐♥❣ t❛r✐✛ ❛♥❞ tr❛❞❡ ❜❛rr✐❡rs✱ ♥♦♥✲t❛r✐✛ ❜❛rr✐❡rs ✭◆❚❇✮ st✐❧❧ ❡①✐st ✐♥ t❤❡ ❙✐♥❣❧❡ ▼❛r❦❡t✳ ◆❚❇s ❝❛♥ ♠❛❦❡ ✐t ❞✐✣❝✉❧t ❢♦r ❝♦✉♥tr✐❡s t♦ tr❛❞❡ ❛❝r♦ss ♥❛t✐♦♥❛❧ ❜♦r❞❡rs✳

✷ ✴ ✷✼

▲✐t❡r❛t✉r❡ ♦♥ ❇♦r❞❡r ❊✛❡❝ts

❇♦r❞❡r ❡✛❡❝ts ❛r❡ ♣r❡s❡♥t ✇❤❡♥ ❛ ❝♦✉♥tr② tr❛❞❡s ♠♦r❡ ✇✐t❤ ✐ts❡❧❢ t❤❛♥ ♦t❤❡r tr❛❞❡ ♣❛rt♥❡rs ❘✐❝❤ ❧✐t❡r❛t✉r❡ st❛rt❡❞ ❜② ▼❝❈❛❧❧✉♠ ✭❆❊❘✱ ✶✾✾✺✮✿ tr❛❞❡ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t✇♦ ❈❛♥❛❞✐❛♥ ♣r♦✈✐♥❝❡s ✐s ✷✷ t✐♠❡s ❤✐❣❤❡r t❤❛♥ tr❛❞❡ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ ❛♥② ❈❛♥❛❞✐❛♥ ♣r♦✈✐♥❝❡ ❛♥❞ ❯❙ st❛t❡✳ ❆♥❞❡rs♦♥ ❛♥❞ ✈❛♥ ❲✐♥❝♦♦♣ ✭❆❊❘✱ ✷✵✵✸✮ ❬❆✈❲❪ ❤✐❣❤❧✐❣❤t t❤❡ ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥❝❡ ♦❢ ♠✉❧t✐❧❛t❡r❛❧ r❡s✐st❛♥❝❡ t❡r♠s ❛♥❞ ❤♦✇ ♦♠✐tt❡❞ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ❜✐❛s ❛✛❡❝ts ❡st✐♠❛t❡s ♦❢ ❜♦r❞❡r ❡✛❡❝ts ▼❛♥② ✇❛②s t♦ ❡st✐♠❛t❡ ❜♦r❞❡r ❡✛❡❝ts

◮ ❚r❛❞❡ ✢♦✇s ❛t t❤❡ ❝♦✉♥tr② ♦r r❡❣✐♦♥ ✭s✉❜✲♥❛t✐♦♥❛❧✮ ❧❡✈❡❧ ◮ ▼♦❞❡❧ ✇✐t❤ ❝♦♠♠♦♥ ♦r ❤❡t❡r♦❣❡♥❡♦✉s ❜♦r❞❡r t❛①❡s✳ ✸ ✴ ✷✼

❇♦r❞❡r ❊✛❡❝ts ✐♥ ❊✉r♦♣❡

❍❡❛❞ ❛♥❞ ▼❛②❡r ✭❘❲❊✱ ✷✵✵✵✮❀ ◆✐ts❝❤ ✭❈❏❊✱ ✷✵✵✵✮❀ ❈❤❡♥ ✭❏■❊✱ ✷✵✵✹✮

◮ ❯s❡ ❝♦✉♥tr②✲❝♦✉♥tr② tr❛❞❡ ✢♦✇s ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ ✼ t♦ ✶✷ ❊❯ ❝♦✉♥tr✐❡s ◮ ❊st✐♠❛t❡s ❛ ❝♦♠♠♦♥ ❜♦r❞❡r t❛① ◮ ❋✐♥❞s ❛ ❜♦r❞❡r ❡✛❡❝t ♦❢ ✻ t♦ ✸✵✿ ❞♦♠❡st✐❝ tr❛❞❡ ♦❢ ❛ ❝♦✉♥tr② ✐s ✻ t♦ ✸✵

t✐♠❡s ❤✐❣❤❡r t❤❛♥ ✐ts ❝r♦ss✲❜♦r❞❡r tr❛❞❡✳

• ❛❧❧❡❣♦ ❛♥❞ ▲❧❛♥♦ ✭✇♣ ✷✵✶✺✮ ✉s❡ r❡❣✐♦♥✲r❡❣✐♦♥ tr❛❞❡ ✢♦✇s ❜❡t✇❡❡♥

❙♣❛♥✐s❤ r❡❣✐♦♥s ❛♥❞ ✼ ❊❯ ❝♦✉♥tr✐❡s

◮ ❊st✐♠❛t❡s ❛ ❝♦♠♠♦♥ ❜♦r❞❡r t❛① ◮ ❋✐♥❞s ❛ ❜♦r❞❡r ❡✛❡❝t ♦❢ ✶✸✳

❇♦❞❡✱ ❘♦❞r✐❣❡✉③✲❈r❡s♣♦✱ ❛♥❞ ❚❤✐ss❡♥ ✭✇♣ ✷✵✶✹✮ ✉s❡ r❡❣✐♦♥✲r❡❣✐♦♥ tr❛❞❡ ✢♦✇s

◮ ✷✺✵ r❡❣✐♦♥s ✐♥ ✷✵ ❊❯ ❝♦✉♥tr✐❡s ◮ ❊st✐♠❛t❡s ✸✽✵ ❜✐❧❛t❡r❛❧ ❜♦r❞❡r ❡✛❡❝ts ◮ ❋✐♥❞s ♦♥ ❛✈❡r❛❣❡ t❤❛t tr❛❞❡ ✐s ✷✽ t✐♠❡s ❧♦✇❡r ❛❝r♦ss ♥❛t✐♦♥❛❧ ❜♦r❞❡rs

t❤❛♥ ✇✐t❤✐♥ t❤❡ r❡❣✐♦♥s✳

❇♦r❞❡r ❡✛❡❝ts ❛r❡ ✈❡r② ❧❛r❣❡ ✇✐t❤✐♥ t❤❡ ❊❙▼✳

✹ ✴ ✷✼

■ss✉❡ ✇✐t❤ ❇♦r❞❡r ❊✛❡❝ts ❊st✐♠❛t❡s ✐♥ ❊❯

❚❤❡ ♣❛♣❡rs ❞♦ ♥♦t ❡st✐♠❛t❡ t❤❡ ❜♦r❞❡r ❡✛❡❝ts ❝♦rr❡❝t❧②✳

◮ ❚❤❡② ✉s❡ ❛ ♣❛rt✐❛❧ ❡q✉✐❧✐❜r✐✉♠ ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤ t♦ ✐❞❡♥t✐❢② t❤❡ ❜♦r❞❡r ❡✛❡❝ts✳ ◮ ❚❛❦❡ t❤❡ ❝♦❡✣❝✐❡♥t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❜♦r❞❡r ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ❛s ❛♥ ❡st✐♠❛t❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❜♦r❞❡r

❡✛❡❝t✳

◮ ❙✐♠✐❧❛r ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤ t♦ ▼❝❈❛❧❧✉♠✳

❆✈❲ str❡ss❡s t❤❡ ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥❝❡ ♦❢ ✉s✐♥❣ ❛ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ❡q✉✐❧✐❜r✐✉♠ ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤✳

◮ ❇♦r❞❡r ❡✛❡❝t ✐s t❤❡ ❡①t❡♥t t❤❛t t❤❡ ❜♦r❞❡r ❜❛rr✐❡rs r❡❞✉❝❡s ❝r♦ss✲❜♦r❞❡r

tr❛❞❡✳

◮ ❈❛❧❝✉❧❛t❡❞ ❛s t❤❡ r❛t✐♦ ♦❢ ❝r♦ss✲❜♦r❞❡r tr❛❞❡ ✐♥ ✷ s❝❡♥❛r✐♦s✿ ✇✐t❤ ❜♦r❞❡r

t❛①❡s ✭❇❡♥❝❤♠❛r❦✮ ✈✳s✳ ✇✐t❤♦✉t ❜♦r❞❡r t❛①❡s ✭❈♦✉♥t❡r❢❛❝t✉❛❧✮✳

◮ ❙t❡♣s✿ ✶✮ ❊st✐♠❛t❡ t❤❡ ♣❛r❛♠❡t❡rs str✉❝t✉r❛❧❧②✱ ✷✮ ❈♦♥❞✉❝t

❝♦✉♥t❡r❢❛❝t✉❛❧ ❛♥❛❧②s✐s ✐❢ ❜♦r❞❡r t❛①❡s ✐s ③❡r♦✱ ✸✮ ❈❛❧❝✉❧❛t❡ t❤❡ r❛t✐♦ ♦❢ tr❛❞❡ ✢♦✇s✳

✺ ✴ ✷✼

❲❤❛t ■ ❞♦ ✐♥ ▼② P❛♣❡r

◗✉❛♥t✐❢② t❤❡ ❜♦r❞❡r ❡✛❡❝ts ✐♥ ❛♠♦♥❣ ❊✉r♦♣❡❛♥ ❝♦✉♥tr✐❡s ✉s✐♥❣ ❛ str✉❝t✉r❛❧ ♠♦❞❡❧ ❯s❡s ❛ ✉♥✐q✉❡ ❞❛t❛s❡t ♦❢ r♦❛❞ ❢r❡✐❣❤t s✉r✈❡② t❤❛t ❝♦♥s✐sts ♦❢ r❡❣✐♦♥❛❧ tr❛❞❡ ✢♦✇s ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ ✷✷ ❊✉r♦♣❡❛♥ ❝♦✉♥tr✐❡s ❛♥❞ ✷✻✼ r❡❣✐♦♥s ❛t t❤❡ ◆❯❚❙✲■■ ❧❡✈❡❧✳ ❈❛❧❝✉❧❛t❡ t❤❡ ❜♦r❞❡r ❡✛❡❝ts ✐♥ ❊✉r♦♣❡ ❝♦♥s✐st❡♥t❧②✳

✻ ✴ ✷✼

Pr❡❧✐♠✐♥❛r② ❘❡s✉❧ts

❉✐st❛♥❝❡ ❡❧❛st✐❝✐t② ♦❢ ✵✳✷✾✱ ✇❤✐❝❤ ✐s ❝♦♥s✐st❡♥t ✇✐t❤ ❡st✐♠❛t❡s ✐♥ ❧✐t❡r❛t✉r❡✳ ▼♦st ❝♦✉♥tr✐❡s ❤❛✈❡ ❛ ❜♦r❞❡r t❛① t❤❛t r❡❞✉❝❡s ❝r♦ss✲❜♦r❞❡r tr❛❞❡

◮ ❇♦r❞❡r t❛①❡s r❛♥❣❡ ❢r♦♠ ✸✵ t♦ ✶✸✵ ♣❡r❝❡♥t ❛❞ ✈❛❧♦r❡♠ ❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡♥t✳ ◮ ●❡r♠❛♥② ❛♥❞ ●r❡❡❝❡ ❤❛✈❡ ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ ❜♦r❞❡r t❛① ♦r ❛ s✉❜s✐❞②✱ ✐✳❡✳ t❤❡✐r

❝r♦ss✲❜♦r❞❡r tr❛❞❡ ✐s ❤✐❣❤❡r t❤❛♥ t❤❡✐r ❞♦♠❡st✐❝ tr❛❞❡✳

❇♦r❞❡r ❡✛❡❝ts ❡①✐sts ✇✐t❤✐♥ t❤❡ ❊✉r♦♣❡❛♥ ❙✐♥❣❧❡ ▼❛r❦❡t

◮ ❋✐♥❞ ❜♦r❞❡r ❡✛❡❝ts t❤❛t r❛♥❣❡ ❢r♦♠ ✵✳✺✵ t♦ ✹✳✺✷✳ ◮ ❇♦r❞❡r ❡✛❡❝ts ❛r❡ ♥♦t ❛s ❧❛r❣❡ ❛r❡ ♠❡❛s✉r❡❞ ✐♥ ♣r❡✈✐♦✉s ❧✐t❡r❛t✉r❡

✭r❛♥❣❡s ❢r♦♠ ✻ t♦ ✷✽✮

❲♦r❦ ✐♥ ♣r♦❣r❡ss✳

✼ ✴ ✷✼

• r❛✈✐t② ▼♦❞❡❧✿ ❈❊❙✱ ❆r♠✐♥❣t♦♥

❆r♠✐♥❣t♦♥ ❛ss✉♠♣t✐♦♥✿

◮ N ❝♦✉♥tr✐❡s ❡❛❝❤ ✇✐t❤ ❛ ✜①❡❞ ❡♥❞♦✇♠❡♥t ♦❢ ❣♦♦❞ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛t❡❞ ❜②

♦r✐❣✐♥

• e✵

i

• ◮ ❊❛❝❤ ❝♦✉♥tr② ❝♦♥s✉♠❡s N ♥✉♠❜❡r ♦❢ ❣♦♦❞s✱ ✐♥❝❧✉❞✐♥❣ ✐ts ♦✇♥

❈❊❙ ✉t✐❧✐t② ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ Uj =

• ∑

i

α(✶−σ)/σ

i

xij τij (σ−✶)/σσ/(σ−✶) s✉❜❥❡❝t t♦ t❤❡ ❜✉❞❣❡t ❝♦♥str❛✐♥t Yj = ∑

i

pixij ✇❤❡r❡ Yj ✐s t❤❡ ♥♦♠✐♥❛❧ ✐♥❝♦♠❡✱ αi ✐s t❤❡ t❛st❡ ♣❛r❛♠❡t❡r✱ σ ✐s t❤❡ ❡❧❛st✐❝✐t② ♦❢ s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥✱ ❛♥❞ τij ✐s t❤❡ ✐❝❡❜❡r❣ tr❛❞❡ ❝♦st✳

✽ ✴ ✷✼

• r❛✈✐t② ❊q✉❛t✐♦♥

■♠♣♦rt ❞❡♠❛♥❞ ❞❡r✐✈❡❞ ❛s xij = Yj θipiτij Pj ✶−σ ❯s✐♥❣ ♠❛r❦❡t ❝❧❡❛r❛♥❝❡ ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥s ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ✇♦r❧❞ ✐♥❝♦♠❡✱ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠ t❤❡ ✐♠♣♦rt ❞❡♠❛♥❞ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ t♦ pixij = YiYj Y W τij ΠiPj ✶−σ ✇❤❡r❡ Πi =

• ∑

j

Yj Y w τij Pj ✶−σ✶/(✶−σ)

✾ ✴ ✷✼

❚r❛❞❡ ❈♦sts

❚r❛❞❡ ❝♦sts ✉s✉❛❧❧② ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ✇✐t❤ ❝♦♠♠♦♥ ❜♦r❞❡r t❛① τij = dij❊❳P(δ)✶−border ✇❤❡r❡ border = ✶ ✐❢ t❤❡ r❡❣✐♦♥ ❡①♣♦rts ♦✉t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝♦✉♥tr② ❚r❛❞❡ ❝♦sts ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛s

τij = dρ

ij ❊❳P(δAT)✶−borderAT ❊❳P(δAT)✶−borderBE ❊❳P(δAT)✶−borderBG ....

♦r ❛s τij = dρ

ij ∏ k

❊❳P(δk)✶−borderk ...∀k ✇❤❡r❡ k ✐s t❤❡ ❝♦✉♥tr✐❡s ❛♥❞

◮ dij ✐s t❤❡ ❜✐❧❛t❡r❛❧ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ r❡❣✐♦♥s ❛♥❞ ρ ✐s t❤❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡

❡❧❛st✐❝✐t②

◮ δi ❝❛♣t✉r❡s t❤❡ ❛❞ ✈❛❧♦r❡♠ ❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡♥t ❜♦r❞❡r t❛① ❛♥❞ borderi ✐s t❤❡

❞✉♠♠② ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ t♦ ❝❛♣t✉r❡ ✐❢ t❤❡ tr❛❞❡ ✢♦✇ ✐s ❛ ❝r♦ss✲❜♦r❞❡r ❡①♣♦rt✳

❚❤❡ ❜♦r❞❡r ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ❛r❡ ❤❡t❡r♦❣❡♥❡♦✉s ❛♥❞ ✇✐❧❧ ❛❧❧♦✇ ✉s t♦ ❝❛♣t✉r❡ ❝♦✉♥tr②✲s♣❡❝✐✜❝ ❜♦r❞❡r t❛①❡s ❛♥❞ ❜♦r❞❡r ❡✛❡❝ts✳

✶✵ ✴ ✷✼

❊st✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ▼♦❞❡❧

❊❝♦♥♦♠❡tr✐❝ ♦❜❥❡❝t✐✈❡✿ ♠✐♥✐♠✐③❡ sq✉❛r❡❞ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥❝❡s ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ ❛❝t✉❛❧ ❛♥❞ ✜tt❡❞ ✈❛❧✉❡s s✉❜❥❡❝t❡❞ t♦ ❝♦♥str❛✐♥ts ♠✐♥∑

i ∑ j

[zij − ˆ zij]✷ ✇❤❡r❡ zij ✐s t❤❡ ❧♦❣ ♦❢ ❛❝t✉❛❧ tr❛❞❡ ✢♦✇s ❛♥❞ ˆ zij ✐s t❤❡ ❧♦❣ ♦❢ ✜tt❡❞ ✈❛❧✉❡s✳ ❚❤❡ ✜tt❡❞ ✈❛❧✉❡ ✐s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❞✐r❡❝t❧② ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥❛❧ ✐♠♣♦rt ❞❡♠❛♥❞ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ✭❧♦❣✲❧✐♥❡❛r✐③❡❞✮ ✇❤❡r❡ ˆ zij ≡ ❧♥xij = −❧♥(Yi)+(✶−σ)[❧♥(αi)+❧♥(τij)+❧♥(pi)−❧♥(Pj)] ❚❤❡ ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥s t❤❛t ❆✈❲ ❛♣♣❧✐❡❞ t♦ t❤❡ ✐♠♣♦rt ❞❡♠❛♥❞ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ❛♣♣❧✐❡❞ ❛s ❝♦♥str❛✐♥ts ✐♥ t❤❡ ❡st✐♠❛t✐♦♥✳

✶✶ ✴ ✷✼

❈♦♥str❛✐♥ts ♦♥ ▼✐♥✐♠✐③❛t✐♦♥ Pr♦❜❧❡♠

• ♦♦❞s ▼❛r❦❡t ❈❧❡❛r❛♥❝❡✿ e✵

i = ∑ j

• Yj

pi αipiτij Pj (✶−σ) ∀i, ■♥❝♦♠❡ ❊q✉❛t✐♦♥✿ Yi = pie✵

i

∀i, ❯♥✐t ❊①♣ ❋✉♥❝t✐♦♥✿ Pj =

• ∑

i

• αipiτij

(✶−σ) ✶/(✶−σ) ∀j, ❯t✐❧✐t②✿ UiPi = Yi ∀i.

◆♦r♠❛❧✐③❡ ♥♦♠✐♥❛❧ ✐♥❝♦♠❡ t♦ ❡q✉❛❧ r❡❛❧ ✐♥❝♦♠❡ s♦ Yi = e✵

i ❛♥❞ pi = ✶ ∀i

❙✉❜❥❡❝t t♦ t❤❡ s♣❡❝✐✜❝ tr❛❞❡ ❝♦st s♣❡❝✐✜❝❛t✐♦♥ ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❛❜♦✈❡✳ ❚❤❡ ♥♦♥✲❧✐♥❡❛r ♣r♦❣r❛♠ ✐s s♦❧✈❡❞ ✉s✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❈❖◆❖P❚ ❛❧❣♦r✐t❤♠ ✐♥ t❤❡

• ❆▼❙ s♦❢t✇❛r❡✳

✶✷ ✴ ✷✼

❊st✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ❙tr❛t❡❣②

❈♦♥❝❡♣t✉❛❧❧② t❤❡ ❡st✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ♠❡t❤♦❞ ✐s s✐♠✐❧❛r t♦ t❤❡ ❆✈❲ ♥♦♥✲❧✐♥❡❛r ❡st✐♠❛t✐♦♥ ♣r♦❣r❛♠✳ ▼❡t❤♦❞ ❛❝❤✐❡✈❡s ❢✉❧❧ t❤❡♦r❡t✐❝ ❝♦♥s✐st❡♥❝② ✭❇❛❧✐str❡r✐ ❛♥❞ ❍✐❧❧❜❡rr②✱ ❏■❊ ✷✵✵✼❀ ❇❛❧✐str❡r✐ ❡t ❛❧✳✱ ❏■❊ ✷✵✶✶✮✳

◮ ❆♥❛❧♦❣♦✉s t♦ ❛♥ ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥❛❧ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ❡q✉✐❧✐❜r✐✉♠ ◮ ❙✐♠✐❧❛r t♦ ▼P❊❈ ❛♣♣r♦❛❝❤ ✭❏✉❞❞ ❛♥❞ ❙✉✱ ❊❝♦♥♦♠❡tr✐❝❛ ✷✵✶✷✮

❆ s♦❧✉t✐♦♥ r❡q✉✐r❡s ❛♥ ❡①♣❧✐❝✐t ❛ss✉♠♣t✐♦♥ ❛❜♦✉t t❤❡ ❧❡✈❡❧ ♦❢ σ

◮ ❈❤♦♦s❡ σ = ✺ ✇❤✐❝❤ ✐s ❝♦♥s✐st❡♥t ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ ♣r❡✈✐♦✉s ❧✐t❡r❛t✉r❡✳

❙t❛♥❞❛r❞ ❡rr♦rs ❛r❡ ❜♦♦tstr❛♣♣❡❞✳

✶✸ ✴ ✷✼

❇♦r❞❡r ❊✛❡❝t

❘❛t✐♦ ♦❢ ✐♥tr❛♥❛t✐♦♥❛❧ tr❛❞❡ ✢♦✇s (Intra) t♦ ✐♥t❡r♥❛t✐♦♥❛❧ tr❛❞❡ ✢♦✇s (Inter) ✇✐t❤ ❛♥❞ ✇✐t❤♦✉t ❜♦r❞❡r t❛①❡s✿ ❇♦r❞❡r ❊✛❡❝t = IntraBB/IntraNB InterBB/InterNB ✇❤❡r❡ s✉❜s❝r✐♣ts BB r❡❢❡rs t♦ ❜❡♥❝❤♠❛r❦ ❡q✉✐❧✐❜r✐✉♠ ✇✐t❤ ❜♦r❞❡r ❜❛rr✐❡rs ❛♥❞ NB r❡❢❡rs t♦ t❤❡ ❝♦✉♥t❡r❢❛❝t✉❛❧ ❡q✉✐❧✐❜r✐✉♠ ✇✐t❤♦✉t ❜♦r❞❡r ❜❛rr✐❡rs✳ ❊①❛♠♣❧❡✿ ❜♦r❞❡r ❡✛❡❝ts ♦❢ ❆✉str✐❛ ✭❆❚✮ ✐s ❝❛❧❝✉❧❛t❡❞ ❛s✿ (AT → AT)BB/(AT → AT)NB (All−AT → AT)BB /(All−AT → AT)NB ❈♦✉♥t❡r❢❛❝t✉❛❧ ❛♥❛❧②s✐s ❞♦♥❡ ❜② ❧♦❝❦✐♥❣ ✐♥ ❡st✐♠❛t❡❞ str✉❝t✉r❛❧ ♣❛r❛♠❡t❡rs✱ s❡tt✐♥❣ ❜♦r❞❡r ❝♦sts ♦❢ ♦♥❡ ❝♦✉♥tr② (δk) t♦ ③❡r♦✱ ❢r❡❡✐♥❣ ✉♣ ♣r✐❝❡s ❛♥❞ ✐♥❝♦♠❡✱ ❛♥❞ s♦❧✈✐♥❣ ❢♦r ❛ ♥❡✇ ❡q✉✐❧✐❜r✐✉♠

✶✹ ✴ ✷✼

❚r❛❞❡ ❉❛t❛

❚❤❡ tr❛❞❡ ❞❛t❛ ❝♦♠❡s ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❊✉r♦st❛t ❘♦❛❞ ❋r❡✐❣❤t ❚r❛♥s♣♦rt ❙✉r✈❡② ❢♦r ✷✵✶✶✳ ❚❤❡ s✉r✈❡② ❝♦❧❧❡❝ts ✐♥❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥ ❛❜♦✉t r♦❛❞ ❝❛rr✐❛❣❡ ♦❢ ❣♦♦❞s ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ ❊❯ ♠❡♠❜❡r ❝♦✉♥tr✐❡s ❛♥❞ t❤r❡❡ ❊❋❚❆ ❝♦✉♥tr✐❡s✱ ❝♦✉♥tr✐❡s✳ ❚❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ ✷✵ ❜r♦❛❞ ❝❛t❡❣♦r✐❡s ♦❢ ❣♦♦❞s ❛t t❤❡ ✜rst ❧❡✈❡❧ ◆❙❚ ❝❧❛ss✐✜❝❛t✐♦♥✳ ❚❤❡ tr❛❞❡ ✢♦✇s ❛r❡ ❡①♣r❡ss❡❞ ❛s ✇❡✐❣❤t ✐♥ ❦❣✳ ◗✉❛rt❡r❧② ❞❛t❛ ✐s ❛✈❛✐❧❛❜❧❡ ❛t t❤❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥✲❞❡st✐♥❛t✐♦♥✲❣♦♦❞s ❧❡✈❡❧✳

✶✺ ✴ ✷✼

• ♦♦❞s ❈❛t❡❣♦r✐❡s

✶✻ ✴ ✷✼

❉❛t❛ ❈❧❡❛♥✐♥❣

❋♦❝✉s ♦♥ ♠❛♥✉❢❛❝t✉r✐♥❣✱ ❛❣r✐❝✉❧t✉r❛❧ ❛♥❞ ❝♦♠♠♦❞✐t② ❣♦♦❞s ✕ ❞r♦♣♣❡❞ ❣♦♦❞s ❝❛t❡❣♦r✐❡s ✶✹✲✷✵ ✼ ❝♦✉♥tr✐❡s ✇❡r❡ ❞r♦♣♣❡❞ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ s❛♠♣❧❡

◮ ❈r♦❛t✐❛✿ ♥♦t ❛♥ ❊❯ ♠❡♠❜❡r ✐♥ ✷✵✶✶ ◮ ❈②♣r✉s✱ ❊st♦♥✐❛✱ ▲✐t❤✉❛♥✐❛✱ ▲✉①❡♠❜♦✉r❣✱ ▲❛t✈✐❛ ❛♥❞ ▲✐❡❝❤t❡♥st❡✐♥✿

❝♦✉♥tr✐❡s ✇✐t❤ ♦♥❧② ♦♥❡ r❡❣✐♦♥

❘❡♠♦✈❡ r❡❣✐♦♥s t♦ ❦❡❡♣ t❤❡ s❛♠♣❧❡ ❝♦♥s✐st❡♥t

◮ ❘❡♠♦✈❡❞ r❡❣✐♦♥s ✭❝♦❞❡s ❡♥❞✐♥❣ ✇✐t❤ ✏❩❩✑✮ t❤❛t ❛❣❣r❡❣❛t❡ ♣❧❛❝❡s✱ s✉❝❤

❛s ❛✐r✲♣❛❝❡s✱ t❡rr✐t♦r✐❛❧ ✇❛t❡r ❛♥❞ ❝♦♥t✐♥❡♥t❛❧ s❤❡❧❢✱ ❡♠❜❛ss✐❡s✱ ❝♦♥s✉❧❛t❡s✱ ♠✐❧✐t❛r② ❜❛s❡s✱ ❞❡♣♦s✐ts ♦❢ ♦✐❧ ❛♥❞ ♥❛t✉r❛❧ ❣❛s❡s✳

❆❣❣r❡❣❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞❛t❛ t♦ ❛♥♥✉❛❧ ❞❛t❛ ✐s ❞♦♥❡ ✐♥ t✇♦ st❡♣s✿

◮ ✶✳ ❆❣❣r❡❣❛t❡ ❛❧❧ q✉❛rt❡rs ❢♦r t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❣♦♦❞s✱ ♦r✐❣✐♥ ❛♥❞ ❞❡st✐♥❛t✐♦♥✳ ◮ ✷✳ ❆❣❣r❡❣❛t❡ ❛❧❧ ❣♦♦❞s ❢♦r t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥ ❛♥❞ ❞❡st✐♥❛t✐♦♥✳ ◮ ❉r❛✇❜❛❝❦✿ ✉s✐♥❣ ✇❡✐❣❤ts ♦♥❧② ❛♥❞ ♥♦t ✈❛❧✉❡s✳

❖❜t❛✐♥ ❛ ❜❛❧❛♥❝❡❞ ♠❛tr✐① ♦❢ ❜✐❧❛t❡r❛❧ ✢♦✇s ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ ✷✻✼ r❡❣✐♦♥s ♦❢ ✷✷ ❊✉r♦♣❡❛♥ ❝♦✉♥tr✐❡s✳

✶✼ ✴ ✷✼

❉❡s❝r✐♣t✐✈❡ ❙t❛t✐st✐❝s ♦❢ ❚r❛❞❡ ❋❧♦✇s

✶✽ ✴ ✷✼

❉✐st❛♥❝❡✱ ❇♦r❞❡r ❛♥❞ ■♥❝♦♠❡

❉✐st❛♥❝❡ ✐s t❤❡ ❣r❡❛t ❝✐r❝❧❡ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ t❤❡ ❝❡♥tr♦✐❞ ♦❢ t❤❡ r❡❣✐♦♥s✳

◮ ❈♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡s ✇❛s ❝❛❧❝✉❧❛t❡❞ ✉s✐♥❣ t❤❡ s❤❛♣❡✜❧❡s ♦♥ t❤❡ ❊✉r♦st❛t

✇❡❜s✐t❡✳

❆ ❜♦r❞❡r ❞✉♠♠② ✐s ❝r❡❛t❡❞ ❢♦r ❡❛❝❤ ❝♦✉♥tr② t♦ ❝❛♣t✉r❡ r❡❣✐♦♥ i✬s ❡①♣♦rts ♦✉t ♦❢ ✐ts ❝♦✉♥tr②

◮ ❂ ✵ ✐❢ r❡❣✐♦♥ i ❡①♣♦rt t♦ ♦t❤❡r ❝♦✉♥tr✐❡s ◮ ❂ ✶ ♦t❤❡r✇✐s❡ ✭✐✳❡✳ r❡❣✐♦♥ i✬s ❡①♣♦rts ✇✐t❤✐♥ ✐ts ❝♦✉♥tr② ❛♥❞ tr❛❞❡ ✢♦✇s

♦❢ ♦t❤❡r r❡❣✐♦♥s✮✳

❆ r❡❣✐♦♥✬s ✐♥❝♦♠❡ ✐s t❤❡ t♦t❛❧ ✐♠♣♦rts ♦❢ ❛ r❡❣✐♦♥

◮ ❘❡❣✐♦♥❛❧ ●❉P ✐♥❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ❛✈❛✐❧❛❜❧❡ ❜✉t t❤❡s❡ ❛r❡ ✐♥ ✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ ❣♦♦❞s

❛♥❞ ❞♦❡s ♥♦t ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞ ✇✐t❤ t❤❡ tr❛❞❡ ❞❛t❛✳

◮ ❙♦❧✉t✐♦♥✿ ❝r❡❛t❡❞ ♠❡❛s✉r❡ ♦❢ ❡①♣❡♥❞✐t✉r❡ ❜② ❛❣❣r❡❣❛t✐♥❣ ✐♠♣♦rt ✈❛❧✉❡s

❛♥❞ tr❡❛t✐♥❣ ✐t ❛s r❡❣✐♦♥✬s ✐♥❝♦♠❡

✶✾ ✴ ✷✼

❘❡s✉❧ts ♦❢ ❙tr✉❝t✉r❛❧ ❊st✐♠❛t✐♦♥

❱❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ❘❡s✉❧ts ❱❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ❘❡s✉❧ts ❱❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ❘❡s✉❧ts ❱❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ❘❡s✉❧ts ❧♥dij = (✶−σ)ρ ✲✶✳✶✼✻ borderDE ✶✳✶✶✸ borderIE ✲✷✳✻✼✷ borderRO ✲✷✳✺✶✹ ✭✵✳✵✵✺✮ ✭✵✳✵✸✷✮ ✭✵✳✵✾✾✮ ✭✵✳✵✻✻✮ borderAT ✲✷✳✻✺✶ borderDK ✲✷✳✽✼✻ borderIT ✲✶✳✷✸✶ borderSE ✲✶✳✽✾✾ ✭✵✳✵✸✷✮ ✭✵✳✵✺✻✮ ✭✵✳✵✹✼✮ ✭✵✳✶✵✸✮ borderBE ✲✷✳✵✶✺ borderEL ✵✳✸✻✽ borderNL ✲✷✳✵✵✹ borderSI ✲✷✳✵✻✸ ✭✵✳✵✷✺✮ ✭✵✳✵✺✾✮ ✭✵✳✵✺✾✮ ✭✵✳✵✽✶✮ borderBG ✲✷✳✸✵✷ borderES ✲✶✳✹✽✶ borderNO ✲✶✳✼✵✹ borderSK ✲✷✳✵✺✸ ✭✵✳✵✽✼✮ ✭✵✳✵✸✷✮ ✭✵✳✵✽✵✮ ✭✵✳✵✻✺✮ borderCH ✲✸✳✸✶✷ borderFR ✲✷✳✺✹✽ borderPL ✲✷✳✸✷✹ borderUK ✲✶✳✵✽✾ ✭✵✳✵✸✻✮ ✭✵✳✵✷✾✮ ✭✵✳✵✻✻✮ ✭✵✳✵✸✵✮ borderCZ ✲✷✳✶✸✺ borderHU ✲✷✳✵✵✾ borderPT ✲✶✳✻✽✵ ✭✵✳✵✸✻✮ ✭✵✳✵✹✸✮ ✭✵✳✵✻✸✮ ◆♦t❡✿ ❇♦♦tstr❛♣♣❡❞ st❛♥❞❛r❞ ❡rr♦rs ✐♥ ♣❛r❡♥t❤❡s❡s✳ ✷✵ ✴ ✷✼

❉✐s❝✉ss✐♦♥

❉✐st❛♥❝❡ ❡❧❛st✐❝✐t② ρ =

βdist (✶−σ) ♦❢ ✵✳✷✾ t❤❛t ✐s ❝♦♥s✐st❡♥t ✇✐t❤ ❧✐t❡r❛t✉r❡

◮ ❍✉♠♠❡❧s ✭✇♣ ✷✵✵✶✮ ✜♥❞s ρ = ✵.✷✼ ✉s✐♥❣ ✐♥t❡r♥❛t✐♦♥❛❧ tr❛♥s♣♦rt ❞❛t❛✳ ◮ ●❛❧❧❡❣♦ ❛♥❞ ▲❧❛♥♦ ✭✷✵✶✺✮ ✜♥❞s ❛ ❞✐st❛♥❝❡ ❝♦❡✣❝✐❡♥t ♦❢ −✶.✻✷✻ ♦r

ρ = ✵.✹✶ ✭❜❛s❡❞ ♦♥ σ = ✺✮✳

❚❤❡ ❛❞ ✈❛❧♦r❡♠ ❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡♥t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❜♦r❞❡r t❛① ❝❛♥ ❜❡ ❝❛❧❝✉❧❛t❡❞ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❜♦r❞❡r ❝♦❡✣❝✐❡♥ts

◮ ❆s ❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❜② t❤❡ tr❛❞❡ ❝♦st s♣❡❝✐✜❝❛t✐♦♥✱ ❜♦r❞❡r t❛①

δk = EXP (borderk/(✶−σ)) ∀k✳

❇♦r❞❡r t❛①❡s r❛♥❣❡s ❢r♦♠ ✲✷✹ ♣❡r❝❡♥t t♦ ✶✷✾ ♣❡r❝❡♥t✳

◮ ❋♦r ❡①❛♠♣❧❡✱ ❙✇✐t③❡r❧❛♥❞ ❤❛s ❛ ❜♦r❞❡r t❛① ♦❢ ✶✷✾ ♣❡r❝❡♥t ♦♥ ✐ts ❡①♣♦rts

t♦ ♦t❤❡r ❊✉r♦♣❡❛♥ ❝♦✉♥tr✐❡s✳

◮ ●❡r♠❛♥② ❤❛s ❛ ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ ❜♦r❞❡r t❛① ✭♦r s✉❜s✐❞②✮ ♦❢ ✷✹ ♣❡r❝❡♥t ❢♦r ✐ts

❡①♣♦rts t♦ ♦t❤❡r ❊✉r♦♣❡❛♥ ❝♦✉♥tr✐❡s✳

❊st✐♠❛t❡s ❛r❡ s✐❣♥✐✜❝❛♥t ❛t ✶ ♣❡r❝❡♥t ❧❡✈❡❧ ✭❜✉t ♣r❡❧✐♠✐♥❛r②✮✳

✷✶ ✴ ✷✼

❇♦r❞❡r ❚❛①❡s ✭❆❞ ✈❛❧♦r❡♠ ❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡♥t✮

✷✷ ✴ ✷✼

❇♦r❞❡r ❊✛❡❝ts

❘❡❝❛❧❧✿ ❚♦ ❝❛❧❝✉❧❛t❡ ❜♦r❞❡r ❡✛❡❝ts ❢♦r ❛ ❝♦✉♥tr②

◮ ❘❡♠♦✈❡ ❜♦r❞❡r t❛① ❢♦r ❝♦✉♥tr② ✐♥ ❝♦✉♥t❡r❢❛❝t✉❛❧ ❡①♣❡r✐♠❡♥t✱ ❝❛❧❝✉❧❛t❡

r❛t✐♦ ♦❢ ✐♥tr❛♥❛t✐♦♥❛❧ t♦ ✐♥t❡r♥❛t✐♦♥❛❧ tr❛❞❡ ✢♦✇s✳

❆✉str✐❛ ❤❛s ❛ ❜♦r❞❡r ❡✛❡❝t ♦❢ ✷✳✽✼✳ ❙✇✐t③❡r❧❛♥❞ ❤❛s ❛ ❜♦r❞❡r ❡✛❡❝t ♦❢ ✹✳✺✷✳

✪ ❈❤❛♥❣❡ ✐♥ ❡①♣♦rts t♦ ❆✉str✐❛ ✪ ❈❤❛♥❣❡ ✐♥ ❡①♣♦rts t♦ ❙✇✐t③❡r❧❛♥❞ ❋r♦♠ ❆✉str✐❛♥ r❡❣✐♦♥s ❋r♦♠ ♦t❤❡r ✭❊❯✮ r❡❣✐♦♥s ❋r♦♠ ❙✇✐ss r❡❣✐♦♥s ❋r♦♠ ♦t❤❡r ✭❊❯✮ r❡❣✐♦♥s ✲✾✾✳✼✼ ✵✳✻✼ ✲✾✾✳✾✾ ✵✳✵✸✽ ◆♦t❡✿ P❡r❝❡♥t❛❣❡ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ✐♥ tr❛❞❡ ✢♦✇s ❛r❡ ❝❛❧❝✉❧❛t❡❞ ❛s x′

x −✶ ✇❤❡r❡ x ✐s t❤❡

❜❡♥❝❤♠❛r❦ tr❛❞❡ ✢♦✇s ❛♥❞ x

′ ✐s t❤❡ ❝♦✉♥t❡r❢❛❝t✉❛❧ tr❛❞❡ ✢♦✇s ✇❤❡♥ t❤❡

❜♦r❞❡rs ❛r❡ r❡♠♦✈❡❞✳

✷✸ ✴ ✷✼

❇♦r❞❡r ❊✛❡❝ts ❘❛♥❣❡s ❢r♦♠ ✵✳✺✵ t♦ ✹✳✺✷

✷✹ ✴ ✷✼

❈♦♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥

◗✉❛♥t✐✜❡❞ t❤❡ ❜♦r❞❡r ❡✛❡❝ts ✐♥ t❤❡ ❊✉r♦♣❡❛♥ ❙✐♥❣❧❡ ▼❛r❦❡t✳

◮ ❋✐♥❞ ❜♦r❞❡r ❡✛❡❝ts t❤❛t r❛♥❣❡ ❢r♦♠ ✵✳✺✵ t♦ ✹✳✺✷✳ ◮ ❙♠❛❧❧❡r t❤❛♥ ❡st✐♠❛t❡s ✐♥ ❧✐t❡r❛t✉r❡✳ ◮ ◆❚❇s ❛r❡ ♥♦t t❤❛t ❜✐❣ ❛♥ ✐ss✉❡❄

❇♦r❞❡r ❡✛❡❝ts ❝❛♣t✉r❡ ♥♦♥✲t❛r✐✛ ❜❛rr✐❡rs

◮ ■♥❢♦r♠ ✉s ❛❜♦✉t ♥♦♥✲t❛r✐✛ ❜❛rr✐❡rs ✕ ❢♦r ❡✳❣✳ ❚❇❚ ✐ss✉❡s s✉❝❤ ❛s

❧❛❜❡❧✐♥❣ ♦r st❛♥❞❛r❞s ✭❈❤❡♥ ❛♥❞ ◆♦✈②✱ ✇♣ ✷✵✵✾✮

◮ ■t ❝❛♥ ❛❧s♦ ❜❡ ❞✉❡ t♦ t❤❡ ♣r❡✈❛❧❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ tr❛❞❡ ✐♥ ✐♥t❡r♠❡❞✐❛t❡ ❣♦♦❞s ✭❨✐✱

❏P❊ ✷✵✵✸❀ ❍✐❧❧❜❡rr② ❛♥❞ ❍✉♠♠❡❧s✱ ❊❊❘ ✷✵✵✽✮✳

■♥❝r❡❛s✐♥❣❧② ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t ✐ss✉❡ ❛s t❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ ❣r♦✇✐♥❣ ❝♦♥❝❡r♥s ❛❜♦✉t ❜♦r❞❡rs ✇✐t❤✐♥ t❤❡ ❊❯✳

◮ ■♥ ❋❡❜ ✷✵✶✻✱ ❆✉str✐❛✱ ❉❡♥♠❛r❦✱ ❋r❛♥❝❡✱ ●❡r♠❛♥②✱ ◆♦r✇❛② ❛♥❞ ❙✇❡❞❡♥

❤❛s t❡♠♣♦r❛r✐❧② r❡✐♥tr♦❞✉❝❡❞ ❜♦r❞❡r ❝♦♥tr♦❧s✳

◮ ❉✐s❝✉ss✐♦♥s ♦♥ ✐♥t❡❣r❛t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ❡①✐ts ✐♥ t❤❡ ❊❯✳ ✷✺ ✴ ✷✼

❲♦r❦ ✐♥ Pr♦❣r❡ss

Pr♦♣❡r ❜♦♦tstr❛♣♣✐♥❣ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❡st✐♠❛t❡s✳ P❡r❢♦r♠ ❝♦✉♥t❡r❢❛❝t✉❛❧ ❡①♣❡r✐♠❡♥t✿ ❘❡♠♦✈❡ ❛❧❧ ❜♦r❞❡r t❛①❡s ✐♥ t❤❡ ❊✉r♦♣❡❛♥ ❙✐♥❣❧❡ ▼❛r❦❡t✳ ❇❡tt❡r ❡①♣❧❛♥❛t✐♦♥ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t ❜♦r❞❡r t❛①❡s ✭❛♥❞ s✉❜s✐❞②✮✳ ❯s❡ ✐♥t❡r♥❛t✐♦♥❛❧ tr❛❞❡ ♣r✐❝❡s t♦ ❛❣❣r❡❣❛t❡ tr❛❞❡ ✢♦✇s ✐♥ ✈❛❧✉❡s✳

✷✻ ✴ ✷✼

❚❤❛♥❦ ❨♦✉

✷✼ ✴ ✷✼