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Predication and NP Structure in an Omnipredicative Language: The Case of Khoekhoe Predication and NP Structure in an Michael Hahn University of Omnipredicative Language: The Case of T ubingen mhahn@sfs.uni- Khoekhoe tuebingen.de Data

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Predication and NP Structure in an Omnipredicative Language: The Case of Khoekhoe Michael Hahn University of T¨ ubingen mhahn@sfs.uni- tuebingen.de Data

Omnipredicativity Khoekhoe Free Relative Clauses Negation Word Order Complex Nominal Predicates

Analysis

Lexical Predicates Relative Clauses Other Modifiers

Conclusion References

Predication and NP Structure in an Omnipredicative Language: The Case of Khoekhoe

Michael Hahn University of T¨ ubingen mhahn@sfs.uni-tuebingen.de Workshop on Understudied Languages and Syntactic Theory 2014

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Predication and NP Structure in an Omnipredicative Language: The Case of Khoekhoe Michael Hahn University of T¨ ubingen mhahn@sfs.uni- tuebingen.de Data

Omnipredicativity Khoekhoe Free Relative Clauses Negation Word Order Complex Nominal Predicates

Analysis

Lexical Predicates Relative Clauses Other Modifiers

Conclusion References

Data Omnipredicativity Khoekhoe Free Relative Clauses Negation Word Order Complex Nominal Predicates Analysis Lexical Predicates Relative Clauses Other Modifiers Conclusion

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Predication and NP Structure in an Omnipredicative Language: The Case of Khoekhoe Michael Hahn University of T¨ ubingen mhahn@sfs.uni- tuebingen.de Data

Omnipredicativity Khoekhoe Free Relative Clauses Negation Word Order Complex Nominal Predicates

Analysis

Lexical Predicates Relative Clauses Other Modifiers

Conclusion References

Omnipredicativity (Launey 1994, 2002)

◮ members of all major open word classes can function

equally and without derivation as predicates

◮ predicative use is primary

◮ referential use is derived syntactically by relativization

◮ different from the lack of word classes: in Classical

Nahuatl, ...

◮ nouns and verbs clearly distinguished by their

morphological properties

◮ on the syntactic level, nouns and verbs can both be

used predicatively and referentially in the same ways

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SLIDE 4

Predication and NP Structure in an Omnipredicative Language: The Case of Khoekhoe Michael Hahn University of T¨ ubingen mhahn@sfs.uni- tuebingen.de Data

Omnipredicativity Khoekhoe Free Relative Clauses Negation Word Order Complex Nominal Predicates

Analysis

Lexical Predicates Relative Clauses Other Modifiers

Conclusion References

Khoekhoe(gowab)

◮ Central Khoisan language spoken in Namibia and South

Africa

◮ three open word classes: verbs, nouns, adjectives ◮ distinguished by...

  • 1. derivation morphemes applicable to them

◮ verbs and adjectives: valencey-changing suffixes ◮ nouns: diminutives

  • 2. nouns have inherent gender
  • 3. adjectives and nouns have a fixed order within NPs:

adjectives can modify nouns, but not the other way around

◮ but striking similarities in their syntax

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Predication and NP Structure in an Omnipredicative Language: The Case of Khoekhoe Michael Hahn University of T¨ ubingen mhahn@sfs.uni- tuebingen.de Data

Omnipredicativity Khoekhoe Free Relative Clauses Negation Word Order Complex Nominal Predicates

Analysis

Lexical Predicates Relative Clauses Other Modifiers

Conclusion References

Predication in Khoekhoe

◮ SOV language ◮ V slot: any of the three open word classes ◮ only the possible TAM markers vary with the predicate ◮ verbs

(1) saa=ts you=2ms ge decl ra tam |khii come

“You are coming.”

◮ adjectives

(2) om=s house=3fs ge decl a tam kai big

“The house is big.”

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Predication and NP Structure in an Omnipredicative Language: The Case of Khoekhoe Michael Hahn University of T¨ ubingen mhahn@sfs.uni- tuebingen.de Data

Omnipredicativity Khoekhoe Free Relative Clauses Negation Word Order Complex Nominal Predicates

Analysis

Lexical Predicates Relative Clauses Other Modifiers

Conclusion References

Predication in Khoekhoe II

◮ nouns

(3) saa=ts you=2ms ge decl a tam gao-ao king

“You are a king.”

◮ proper names

(4) saa=ts you=2ms ge decl a tam Petru Peter

“You are Peter.”

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Predication and NP Structure in an Omnipredicative Language: The Case of Khoekhoe Michael Hahn University of T¨ ubingen mhahn@sfs.uni- tuebingen.de Data

Omnipredicativity Khoekhoe Free Relative Clauses Negation Word Order Complex Nominal Predicates

Analysis

Lexical Predicates Relative Clauses Other Modifiers

Conclusion References

Predication in Khoekhoe III

◮ deictics

(5) om=s house=3fs ge decl a tam nee this

“The house is this one.”

◮ pronominal elements

(6) tii=ta I=1s ge decl a tam saa you

“I am you.”

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Predication and NP Structure in an Omnipredicative Language: The Case of Khoekhoe Michael Hahn University of T¨ ubingen mhahn@sfs.uni- tuebingen.de Data

Omnipredicativity Khoekhoe Free Relative Clauses Negation Word Order Complex Nominal Predicates

Analysis

Lexical Predicates Relative Clauses Other Modifiers

Conclusion References

Predicative vs. Argument NPs

◮ argument NPs generally end with a

person-gender-number (PGN) morpheme

◮ not found when the noun is the predicate

(7) a. [gao-ao=b] king=3ms ge decl ra tam |khii come

“The king is coming.”

  • b. tii=ta

1s=1s ge decl [gao-ao=b] king=3ms !oa to ra tam mˆ ıˆ ı speak

“I am speaking to the king.”

⇒ predicative nouns are not simply NPs without a copula

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Predication and NP Structure in an Omnipredicative Language: The Case of Khoekhoe Michael Hahn University of T¨ ubingen mhahn@sfs.uni- tuebingen.de Data

Omnipredicativity Khoekhoe Free Relative Clauses Negation Word Order Complex Nominal Predicates

Analysis

Lexical Predicates Relative Clauses Other Modifiers

Conclusion References

The Omnipredicative Hypothesis

Hypothesis:

◮ Khoekhoe is omnipredicative

◮ nouns are primarily genuine predicates, like verbs ◮ argument NPs are free relative clauses

Empirical expectations:

  • 1. nonverbal predicates should show the full spectrum of

behaviour of predicates

  • 2. argument NPs should be syntactically indistinguishable

from free relative clauses

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SLIDE 10

Predication and NP Structure in an Omnipredicative Language: The Case of Khoekhoe Michael Hahn University of T¨ ubingen mhahn@sfs.uni- tuebingen.de Data

Omnipredicativity Khoekhoe Free Relative Clauses Negation Word Order Complex Nominal Predicates

Analysis

Lexical Predicates Relative Clauses Other Modifiers

Conclusion References

Free Relative Clauses

◮ general structure:

clause with gap/resumptive + PGN marker

◮ subject extraction

(8) saa=ts you=2ms ge decl [|khii come ra]=b tam=3ms !oa to ra tam mˆ ıˆ ı speak

‘you are speaking to the one (m.) who is coming’

◮ complement extraction

(9) [Petru=b Petrs=3ms go tam mˆ uˆ u]=s see=3fs ge decl go tam |khii come

‘the one (f.) Peter saw has come’

◮ this looks very similar to argument NPs with noun head ◮ but there is an additional TAM marker...

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SLIDE 11

Predication and NP Structure in an Omnipredicative Language: The Case of Khoekhoe Michael Hahn University of T¨ ubingen mhahn@sfs.uni- tuebingen.de Data

Omnipredicativity Khoekhoe Free Relative Clauses Negation Word Order Complex Nominal Predicates

Analysis

Lexical Predicates Relative Clauses Other Modifiers

Conclusion References

Free Relative Clauses

◮ ...but this just reflects a usage preference

(10) a. [gao-ao king a]=b tam=3ms

‘the king’

  • b. saa=ts

you=2ms ge decl |khii come

‘you come’

◮ these options are grammatical but dispreferred, possibly

because nouns generally denote permanent properties

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SLIDE 12

Predication and NP Structure in an Omnipredicative Language: The Case of Khoekhoe Michael Hahn University of T¨ ubingen mhahn@sfs.uni- tuebingen.de Data

Omnipredicativity Khoekhoe Free Relative Clauses Negation Word Order Complex Nominal Predicates

Analysis

Lexical Predicates Relative Clauses Other Modifiers

Conclusion References

Free Relative Clauses

◮ all predicates can be used in ‘free relatives’

◮ nouns, verbs: see above ◮ adjectives

(11) kai big (a)=n tam=3p ge decl go tam |khii come

‘the big ones have come’

◮ deictics

(12) ||naa those (a)=n tam=3p ge decl go tam |khii come

‘those ones have come’

◮ pronominal elements ⇒ ‘pronouns’ [Haacke, 1977]

(13) saa you (a)=ts tam=2ms ge decl go tam |khii come

‘you have come’

⇒ second expectation might be met

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Predication and NP Structure in an Omnipredicative Language: The Case of Khoekhoe Michael Hahn University of T¨ ubingen mhahn@sfs.uni- tuebingen.de Data

Omnipredicativity Khoekhoe Free Relative Clauses Negation Word Order Complex Nominal Predicates

Analysis

Lexical Predicates Relative Clauses Other Modifiers

Conclusion References

Negation

◮ nouns in NPs can be negated, just like predicates ◮ predicative noun

(14) ||ˆ ıˆ ı=b 3s=3ms ge decl a tam Petru Peter tama neg

‘He is not Peter.’

◮ argument NP headed by noun

(15) Petru Peter tama=b neg=3ms

‘the one who is not Peter’

◮ the same negation marker is used for all other predicates

(16) tii=ta 1s=1s ge decl =gae smoke tama neg

‘I do not smoke.’

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Predication and NP Structure in an Omnipredicative Language: The Case of Khoekhoe Michael Hahn University of T¨ ubingen mhahn@sfs.uni- tuebingen.de Data

Omnipredicativity Khoekhoe Free Relative Clauses Negation Word Order Complex Nominal Predicates

Analysis

Lexical Predicates Relative Clauses Other Modifiers

Conclusion References

The Omnipredicative Hypothesis

Hypothesis:

◮ Khoekhoe is omnipredicative

◮ nouns are primarily genuine predicates, like verbs ◮ argument NPs are free relative clauses

Empirical expectations:

  • 1. nonverbal predicates should show the full spectrum of

behaviour of predicates

  • 2. argument NPs should be syntactically indistinguishable

from free relative clauses

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Predication and NP Structure in an Omnipredicative Language: The Case of Khoekhoe Michael Hahn University of T¨ ubingen mhahn@sfs.uni- tuebingen.de Data

Omnipredicativity Khoekhoe Free Relative Clauses Negation Word Order Complex Nominal Predicates

Analysis

Lexical Predicates Relative Clauses Other Modifiers

Conclusion References

Word Order Alternation

◮ predicate fronted to the position immediately in front of

the subject

◮ subject has to be expressed by PGN marker

◮ applicable to all predicates

(17) |khii=ts come=2ms ge decl ra tam

‘You are coming.’

(18) gao-ao=ts king=2ms ge decl a tam

‘You are a king.’

(19) gao-ao=b king=3ms ge decl a tam

‘He is a king.’

⇒ a complete utterance may look like an argument NP, as decl and tam are optional!

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Predication and NP Structure in an Omnipredicative Language: The Case of Khoekhoe Michael Hahn University of T¨ ubingen mhahn@sfs.uni- tuebingen.de Data

Omnipredicativity Khoekhoe Free Relative Clauses Negation Word Order Complex Nominal Predicates

Analysis

Lexical Predicates Relative Clauses Other Modifiers

Conclusion References

Nominalization

◮ clauses can be nominalized by adding a 3fs PGN

marker

◮ independent of type of the predicate

(20) ||ˆ ıˆ ı=s 3=3fs go tam mˆ uˆ u see [|khii=b come=3ms go]=s=a tam=3fs=case

‘she saw that he came’

(21) ||ˆ ıˆ ı=s 3=3fs go tam mˆ uˆ u see [|ui=b stone=3ms a]=s=a tam=3fs=case

‘she saw that it was a stone’

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Predication and NP Structure in an Omnipredicative Language: The Case of Khoekhoe Michael Hahn University of T¨ ubingen mhahn@sfs.uni- tuebingen.de Data

Omnipredicativity Khoekhoe Free Relative Clauses Negation Word Order Complex Nominal Predicates

Analysis

Lexical Predicates Relative Clauses Other Modifiers

Conclusion References

Modified NPs

◮ NPs can be modified by elements preceding the noun,

such as...

◮ adjectives

(22) khoexa friendly khoe=b person=3ms

‘the friendly (m.) person’

◮ relative clauses: clauses with gap/resumptive

(23) [[=an know tama=ta neg=1s hˆ aˆ a] tam khoe=b] person=3ms ge decl go tam |khii come

‘A person that I don’t know came.’

◮ deictics, numerals, possessives, ... ◮ several such modifiers 17 / 41

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Predication and NP Structure in an Omnipredicative Language: The Case of Khoekhoe Michael Hahn University of T¨ ubingen mhahn@sfs.uni- tuebingen.de Data

Omnipredicativity Khoekhoe Free Relative Clauses Negation Word Order Complex Nominal Predicates

Analysis

Lexical Predicates Relative Clauses Other Modifiers

Conclusion References

Complex Nominal Predicates

◮ modified nouns can function as predicates ◮ adjectives

(24) Petru=b Peter=3ms ge decl (a) tam [khoexa friendly khoe] person

‘Peter is a friendly person.’

◮ relative clauses

(25) Petru=b Peter=3ms ge decl a tam [=an know tama=ta neg=1s hˆ aˆ a] tam khoe person

‘Peter is a person that I don’t know.’

◮ same holds for nouns with possessives, deictics,

numerals, ...

◮ and for nouns with multiple modifiers 18 / 41

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Predication and NP Structure in an Omnipredicative Language: The Case of Khoekhoe Michael Hahn University of T¨ ubingen mhahn@sfs.uni- tuebingen.de Data

Omnipredicativity Khoekhoe Free Relative Clauses Negation Word Order Complex Nominal Predicates

Analysis

Lexical Predicates Relative Clauses Other Modifiers

Conclusion References

Complex Nominal Predicates

Claim: these are complex predicates

◮ modifier cannot be separated from the noun

(26) * Petru=b Peter=3ms ge decl khoexa friendly a tam khoe person

‘Peter is a friendly person.’

(27) * Petru=b Peter=3ms ge decl [=an know tama=ta neg=1s hˆ aˆ a] tam a tam khoe person

‘Peter is a person that I don’t know.’

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Predication and NP Structure in an Omnipredicative Language: The Case of Khoekhoe Michael Hahn University of T¨ ubingen mhahn@sfs.uni- tuebingen.de Data

Omnipredicativity Khoekhoe Free Relative Clauses Negation Word Order Complex Nominal Predicates

Analysis

Lexical Predicates Relative Clauses Other Modifiers

Conclusion References

Complex Nominal Predicates

◮ complex nominal predicates can be embedded under kai

‘to become’ (28) tsˆ ıˆ ı=b and=3ms ge decl =kham=a young=3ms.a ge tam [=kham young =khoa] elefant kai become

‘and the young one became a young elefant’

(29) ||ˆ ıˆ ı=b 3=3ms ge decl go tam [gao=b king=3ms di poss |hoo] friend kai become

‘he became a friend of the king’

◮ modifier again cannot be separated from the noun

⇒ these are complex predicates

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Predication and NP Structure in an Omnipredicative Language: The Case of Khoekhoe Michael Hahn University of T¨ ubingen mhahn@sfs.uni- tuebingen.de Data

Omnipredicativity Khoekhoe Free Relative Clauses Negation Word Order Complex Nominal Predicates

Analysis

Lexical Predicates Relative Clauses Other Modifiers

Conclusion References

Conclusion: the empirical situation

◮ argument NPs are indistinguishable from free relative

clauses

◮ nouns, adjectives, etc. are primarily predicates ◮ nouns form complex predicates together with relative

clauses and other modifiers

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Predication and NP Structure in an Omnipredicative Language: The Case of Khoekhoe Michael Hahn University of T¨ ubingen mhahn@sfs.uni- tuebingen.de Data

Omnipredicativity Khoekhoe Free Relative Clauses Negation Word Order Complex Nominal Predicates

Analysis

Lexical Predicates Relative Clauses Other Modifiers

Conclusion References

The Role of the PGN Marker

◮ the only lexical element that can function referentially

but not as predicate

◮ can be used as subject pronoun

◮ any more complex NP:

relative clause + PGN marker (complex) predicate

◮ Claim: PGN marker is the head

◮ nouns are essentially predicates ◮ phrases only become referential by the addition of PGN

markers

◮ case marking applies to the PGN marker ◮ consistent with the general head-final word-order of

Khoekhoe

◮ Henceforth refer to Khoekhoe argument ‘NPs’ as DPs

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SLIDE 23

Predication and NP Structure in an Omnipredicative Language: The Case of Khoekhoe Michael Hahn University of T¨ ubingen mhahn@sfs.uni- tuebingen.de Data

Omnipredicativity Khoekhoe Free Relative Clauses Negation Word Order Complex Nominal Predicates

Analysis

Lexical Predicates Relative Clauses Other Modifiers

Conclusion References

Not the full story...

◮ coreferent DPs can be iterated, yielding a single DP

(30) [khoe=b] person=3ms [=an know tama=ta neg=1sg hˆ aˆ a=b] tam

‘a person that I don’t know’

◮ DP + possessive marker

(31) [khoexa-khoe=b friend=3ms ˆ aˆ a=s] poss=2fs ge decl go tam |khii come

‘Her friend (m.) has come.’

⇒ both phenomena can be accomodated by simple constructions

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Predication and NP Structure in an Omnipredicative Language: The Case of Khoekhoe Michael Hahn University of T¨ ubingen mhahn@sfs.uni- tuebingen.de Data

Omnipredicativity Khoekhoe Free Relative Clauses Negation Word Order Complex Nominal Predicates

Analysis

Lexical Predicates Relative Clauses Other Modifiers

Conclusion References

Analysis

Lexical Predicates: Nouns

◮ verbs, nouns, adjectives, deictics, ... enter the syntax as

predicates

◮ non-empty subj list

khoe ‘person’ (32)            cat     subj

  • DPi
  • comps
  • head

noun     cont   incont person’ parts

  • person’, α(xi)

            ∧ { α ≻ person′ }

◮ similar to entries resulting from lexical rule licensing

predicative nouns (e.g., Ginzburg and Sag, 2001)

◮ no corresponding non-predicative lexical entries in

Khoekhoe

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Predication and NP Structure in an Omnipredicative Language: The Case of Khoekhoe Michael Hahn University of T¨ ubingen mhahn@sfs.uni- tuebingen.de Data

Omnipredicativity Khoekhoe Free Relative Clauses Negation Word Order Complex Nominal Predicates

Analysis

Lexical Predicates Relative Clauses Other Modifiers

Conclusion References

Lexical Predicates: Nouns

◮ any predicate combines with its subject in a

subj-head-phrase (33)    subj-head-phrase subj

  • head

1

   DP

  • synsem

2

  • N

khoe/Petru/...     subj

  • 2
  • comps
  • head

1 noun

   

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Predication and NP Structure in an Omnipredicative Language: The Case of Khoekhoe Michael Hahn University of T¨ ubingen mhahn@sfs.uni- tuebingen.de Data

Omnipredicativity Khoekhoe Free Relative Clauses Negation Word Order Complex Nominal Predicates

Analysis

Lexical Predicates Relative Clauses Other Modifiers

Conclusion References

Lexical Predicates: Adjectives

khoexa ‘friendly’: (34)            cat     subj

  • DPi
  • comps
  • head

adjective     cont   incont friendly’ parts

  • friendly’, α(xi)

            ∧ { α ≻ friendly′ }

◮ analogous entries for verbs, deictics, pronominal

elements, ...

26 / 41

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Predication and NP Structure in an Omnipredicative Language: The Case of Khoekhoe Michael Hahn University of T¨ ubingen mhahn@sfs.uni- tuebingen.de Data

Omnipredicativity Khoekhoe Free Relative Clauses Negation Word Order Complex Nominal Predicates

Analysis

Lexical Predicates Relative Clauses Other Modifiers

Conclusion References

Lexical Predicates: Possessive Marker ‘di’

(35) [tara=s woman=3fs di] poss

  • m=s

house=3fs

‘the woman’s house’

(36) nee this

  • m=s

house=3fs ge decl a tam [tara=s woman=3fs di] poss

‘this house belongs to the woman’

(37)                cat      subj

  • DPi
  • comps
  • DPj
  • head

adjective      cont   incont possess’ parts

  • possess’(xj, xi), ...

 lex +               

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Predication and NP Structure in an Omnipredicative Language: The Case of Khoekhoe Michael Hahn University of T¨ ubingen mhahn@sfs.uni- tuebingen.de Data

Omnipredicativity Khoekhoe Free Relative Clauses Negation Word Order Complex Nominal Predicates

Analysis

Lexical Predicates Relative Clauses Other Modifiers

Conclusion References

The lex feature

◮ enforces predicate complex formation [M¨

uller, 2002]

◮ independently used for verbal complex in Khoekhoe

[Hahn, 2013]

◮ projections of the head are lex + in the complex,

  • utside −

◮ phrases are lex − (at least) if the head is lex − ◮ if a complement is lex +, the head daughter also is

lex +

(38) taras woman=3fs ge decl ||ari tam go yesterday [[=gae+ call [kai+=te+]+]+=gu+]− make=1s=3p

‘the woman had them call me’

28 / 41

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Predication and NP Structure in an Omnipredicative Language: The Case of Khoekhoe Michael Hahn University of T¨ ubingen mhahn@sfs.uni- tuebingen.de Data

Omnipredicativity Khoekhoe Free Relative Clauses Negation Word Order Complex Nominal Predicates

Analysis

Lexical Predicates Relative Clauses Other Modifiers

Conclusion References

Relative clauses and DPs

  • I. Modifying relative clauses

◮ modify a noun and form with it a complex nominal

predicate (39)               mod-rel-cl slash

  • 1 DPi, ...
  • to-bind
  • 1
  • mod

    head noun subj

  • DPi
  • lex

+                  

◮ similar to the English relative clause type in [Sag, 1997]

29 / 41

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Predication and NP Structure in an Omnipredicative Language: The Case of Khoekhoe Michael Hahn University of T¨ ubingen mhahn@sfs.uni- tuebingen.de Data

Omnipredicativity Khoekhoe Free Relative Clauses Negation Word Order Complex Nominal Predicates

Analysis

Lexical Predicates Relative Clauses Other Modifiers

Conclusion References

Example: Modifying Relative Clause

    head-adj-phrase subj

  • 1
  • head

2

    S =an tama=ta hˆ aˆ a     mod-rel-cl slash

  • DPi
  • mod

3

    N khoe        synsem

3

head

2 noun

subj

  • 1 DPi
  • lex

+        (40) Petru=b Peter=3ms ge decl a tam [=an know tama=ta neg=1s hˆ aˆ a] tam khoe person

‘Peter is a person that I don’t know.’

30 / 41

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Predication and NP Structure in an Omnipredicative Language: The Case of Khoekhoe Michael Hahn University of T¨ ubingen mhahn@sfs.uni- tuebingen.de Data

Omnipredicativity Khoekhoe Free Relative Clauses Negation Word Order Complex Nominal Predicates

Analysis

Lexical Predicates Relative Clauses Other Modifiers

Conclusion References

Relative clauses and DPs

  • II. Independent relative clauses

◮ modify a PGN marker and form with it an argument DP

(41)            indep-rel-cl slash

  • 1 DPi, ...
  • to-bind
  • 1
  • mod
  • head

pgn-marker index i

          ⇒ DPs constructed from clauses or predicates by adjunction to a PGN marker via the ordinary head-adjunct-phrase type

◮ alternative: PGN markers may select a complement

clause

31 / 41

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SLIDE 32

Predication and NP Structure in an Omnipredicative Language: The Case of Khoekhoe Michael Hahn University of T¨ ubingen mhahn@sfs.uni- tuebingen.de Data

Omnipredicativity Khoekhoe Free Relative Clauses Negation Word Order Complex Nominal Predicates

Analysis

Lexical Predicates Relative Clauses Other Modifiers

Conclusion References

PGN Markers

◮ semantic contribution: box in the sense of DRT [Kamp

and Reyle, 1993] (42) 

                 

HEAD

pgn-marker

LEX

+

CONT

            

INDEX

i

  • PERSON

second

NUMBER

singular

  • PARTS
  • ..., xi, ...

                              

◮ binds the variable representing the DP’s referent ◮ contents are filled in by the contributions of the other

constituents

32 / 41

slide-33
SLIDE 33

Predication and NP Structure in an Omnipredicative Language: The Case of Khoekhoe Michael Hahn University of T¨ ubingen mhahn@sfs.uni- tuebingen.de Data

Omnipredicativity Khoekhoe Free Relative Clauses Negation Word Order Complex Nominal Predicates

Analysis

Lexical Predicates Relative Clauses Other Modifiers

Conclusion References

Example Analysis: Free Relative Clause

                 

head-adj-phrase

LEX

−

HEAD

2 pgn-marker

CONT

        

INDEX

i

PARTS

  • ..., xi, ...

¬know(me, xi) , ...

                         

N =an tama=ta hˆ aˆ a

        

indep-rel-clause

SLASH

  • DPi
  • MOD

1 i

CONT

  • PARTS
  • ¬ know(me,xi), ...

       

PGN =b

     

word

SYNSEM

1

LEX

+

HEAD

2

     

33 / 41

slide-34
SLIDE 34

Predication and NP Structure in an Omnipredicative Language: The Case of Khoekhoe Michael Hahn University of T¨ ubingen mhahn@sfs.uni- tuebingen.de Data

Omnipredicativity Khoekhoe Free Relative Clauses Negation Word Order Complex Nominal Predicates

Analysis

Lexical Predicates Relative Clauses Other Modifiers

Conclusion References

Example Analysis: DP with nominal predicate

              

head-adj-phrase

LEX

−

HEAD

2 pgn-marker

CONT|PARTS

  • ...,

xi friendly(person, xi) , ...

                          

indep-rel-clause & subj-slash-intro

SUBJ

  • SLASH
  • 1
  • TO-BIND
  • 1
  • MOD

3 i

            

N khoexa khoe

 head-adj

SUBJ

  • 1 DPi

PGN =b

     

word

SYNSEM

3

LEX

+

HEAD

2

     

34 / 41

slide-35
SLIDE 35

Predication and NP Structure in an Omnipredicative Language: The Case of Khoekhoe Michael Hahn University of T¨ ubingen mhahn@sfs.uni- tuebingen.de Data

Omnipredicativity Khoekhoe Free Relative Clauses Negation Word Order Complex Nominal Predicates

Analysis

Lexical Predicates Relative Clauses Other Modifiers

Conclusion References

Implications

◮ Non-first-Person DPs

(43) [sa your ||nao=ta]=s uncle=1s=2fs ta tam =ˆ uˆ u? eat

‘Are you (trying to) eat me, your uncle?’

◮ PGN markers may also form complete DPs by

themselves

◮ only possible in the subject position ◮ enforced by independently required constraints on the

lex feature [Hahn, 2013]: complements are lex −

35 / 41

slide-36
SLIDE 36

Predication and NP Structure in an Omnipredicative Language: The Case of Khoekhoe Michael Hahn University of T¨ ubingen mhahn@sfs.uni- tuebingen.de Data

Omnipredicativity Khoekhoe Free Relative Clauses Negation Word Order Complex Nominal Predicates

Analysis

Lexical Predicates Relative Clauses Other Modifiers

Conclusion References

No Quantifiers to worry about!

◮ no determiners representing generalized quantifiers

◮ as Jelinek [1995] has argued for Straits Salish

◮ Numerals, interrogatives, and elements like huu ‘every’

are actually predicates (44) hˆ ıˆ ı no huu every tama=s neg=3fs

‘no, it is not everything’

(45) ||naa this khoe=n person=3p ge decl a tam !nona three

‘(lit.) these persons are three’

◮ other quantificational expressions are adverbs

36 / 41

slide-37
SLIDE 37

Predication and NP Structure in an Omnipredicative Language: The Case of Khoekhoe Michael Hahn University of T¨ ubingen mhahn@sfs.uni- tuebingen.de Data

Omnipredicativity Khoekhoe Free Relative Clauses Negation Word Order Complex Nominal Predicates

Analysis

Lexical Predicates Relative Clauses Other Modifiers

Conclusion References

Modifiers that are not relative clauses

◮ Most NP modifiers are relative clauses or predicates by

themselves

◮ ... but some aren’t

◮ presumably: adjectives, which need not be intersective ◮ unmarked possessives

(46) ||naa that !huu=b land=3ms gowa=gu language=3ps

‘the languages of that land’

◮ licensed by lexical rules or constructions

37 / 41

slide-38
SLIDE 38

Predication and NP Structure in an Omnipredicative Language: The Case of Khoekhoe Michael Hahn University of T¨ ubingen mhahn@sfs.uni- tuebingen.de Data

Omnipredicativity Khoekhoe Free Relative Clauses Negation Word Order Complex Nominal Predicates

Analysis

Lexical Predicates Relative Clauses Other Modifiers

Conclusion References

Adjectival Modifiers

khoexa ‘friendly’ as in khoexa khoe ‘friendly person’ (47)

                      cat                subj

  • comps
  • head

          adjective mod        head noun subj

  • DPi
  • cont|incont

person’ lex +                                 cont   incont friendly’ parts

  • friendly’, α(β)et, γ(xi)t

                      

∧ { α ≻ friendly’ β ≻ person’ γ ≻ α(β) }

38 / 41

slide-39
SLIDE 39

Predication and NP Structure in an Omnipredicative Language: The Case of Khoekhoe Michael Hahn University of T¨ ubingen mhahn@sfs.uni- tuebingen.de Data

Omnipredicativity Khoekhoe Free Relative Clauses Negation Word Order Complex Nominal Predicates

Analysis

Lexical Predicates Relative Clauses Other Modifiers

Conclusion References

Example Analysis: Complex Nominal Predicate

    head-adj-phrase subj

  • 1
  • head

2

    Adj khoexa               subj

  • head

adjective mod

4

cont       incont friendly’ parts friendly’, α(β)et, γ(xi)t

                   N khoe                synsem

4

subj

  • 1 i
  • head

2 noun

cont     incont person’ parts

  • person’,

γ(xi)

   lex +                ◮ simplest possible resolution: friendly′(person′, xi) ◮ more complex if more modifiers are added

39 / 41

slide-40
SLIDE 40

Predication and NP Structure in an Omnipredicative Language: The Case of Khoekhoe Michael Hahn University of T¨ ubingen mhahn@sfs.uni- tuebingen.de Data

Omnipredicativity Khoekhoe Free Relative Clauses Negation Word Order Complex Nominal Predicates

Analysis

Lexical Predicates Relative Clauses Other Modifiers

Conclusion References

Conclusion

◮ Khoekhoe is an ‘omnipredicative’ language

◮ members of all open word classes enter the syntax as

predicates – with nonempty subj requirement

◮ argument NPs derived in a uniform manner as

projections of pronominal elements, modified by relative clauses

◮ analysis crucially builds on standard components of

HPSG analyses

◮ no special rule licensing predicative use of nouns

required

◮ referential use derived based on simple analysis of

relative clauses

40 / 41

slide-41
SLIDE 41

Predication and NP Structure in an Omnipredicative Language: The Case of Khoekhoe Michael Hahn University of T¨ ubingen mhahn@sfs.uni- tuebingen.de Data

Omnipredicativity Khoekhoe Free Relative Clauses Negation Word Order Complex Nominal Predicates

Analysis

Lexical Predicates Relative Clauses Other Modifiers

Conclusion References

References I

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thesis, Stanford University, 2001. URL http://faculty.washington.edu/ebender/dissertation/.

  • J. Ginzburg and I. A. Sag. Interrogative Investigations: the form, meaning, and use of English
  • Interrogatives. CSLI Publications, Stanford, California, 2001. URL

http://cslipublications.stanford.edu/site/1575862786.html.

  • W. H. G. Haacke. The so-called ’Personal Pronoun’ in Nama. Khoisan Linguistic Studies, 3(3):43–62,

1977.

  • M. Hahn. Word order variation in khoekhoe. In S. M¨

uller, editor, Proceedings of the 20th International Conference on Head-Driven Phrase Structure Grammar, Freie Universit¨ at Berlin, pages 48–68, 2013. URL http://cslipublications.stanford.edu/HPSG/2013/hahn.pdf.

  • F. Henri and A. Abeill´
  • e. The syntax of Copular Construction in Mauritian. In S. M¨

uller, editor, Proceedings of HPSG 2007, pages 130–149, Stanford, 2007. CSLI Publications.

  • E. Jelinek. Quantification in Straits Salish. In E. Bach, E. Jelinek, and B. H. Bartee, editors,

Quantification in Natural Language, volume 54 of Studies in Linguistics and Philosophy, pages 487–540. Springer, 1995.

  • H. Kamp and U. Reyle. From Discourse to Logic. Kluwer, Dordrecht, 1993.
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Editions, Paris, 1994.

  • M. Launey. Compound nouns vs. incorporation in Classical Nahuatl. Studia typologica, 4:113–134, 2002.
  • S. M¨
  • uller. Complex Predicates: Verbal Complexes, Resultative Constructions, and Particle Verbs in
  • German. Number 13 in Studies in Constraint-Based Lexicalism. CSLI Publications, Stanford, 2002.

URL http://hpsg.fu-berlin.de/~stefan/Pub/complex.html.

  • I. A. Sag. English relative clause constructions. Journal of Linguistics, pages 431–484, 1997.

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