P art-of-Sp eec h T agging Guidelines for the P enn T - - PDF document

SLIDE 1 P art-of-Sp eec h T agging Guidelines for the P enn T reebank Pro ject (3rd Revision, 2nd prin ting) Beatrice San torini June 1990 1 1 Second prin ting (F ebruary 1995) up dated and sligh tly reformatted b y Rob ert MacIn t yre. The text

• f

this v ersion app ears to b e the same as the rst prin ting, but subtle dierences ma y exist. The tags for prop er noun and p ersonal pronoun w ere altered in late 1992 in

• rder

to a v

• id

conicts with brac k eting tags; this v ersion reects the new tag names.

SLIDE 2 Con ten ts 1 In tro duction 1 2 List

• f

parts

• f

sp eec h with corresp

• nding

tag 1 3 List

• f

tags with corresp

• nding

part

• f

sp eec h 6 4 Problematic cases 7 4.1 Confusing parts

• f

sp eec h : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 7 4.2 Sp ecic w

• rds

and collo cations : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 22 5 General tagging con v en tions 31 5.1 P art

• f

sp eec h and syn tactic function : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 31 5.2 V ertical slash con v en tion : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 31 5.3 Capitalized w

• rds

: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 32 5.4 Abbreviations : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 32 1

SLIDE 3 1 INTR ODUCTION 1 1 In tro duction This section addresses the linguistic issues that arise in connection with annotating texts b y part

• f

sp eec h (\tagging"). Section 2 is an alphab etical list

• f

the parts

• f

sp eec h enco ded in the annotation system

• f

the P enn T reebank Pro ject, along with their corresp

• nding

abbreviations (\tags") and some information concerning their denition. This section allo ws y

• u

to nd an unfamiliar tag b y lo

• king

up a familia r part

• f

sp eec h. Section 3 recapitulates the information in Section 2, but this time the information is alphab etically

• rdered

b y tags. This is the section to consult in

• rder

to nd

• ut

what an unfamilia r tag means. Since the parts

• f

sp eec h are probably familia r to y

• u

from high sc ho

• l

English, y

• u

should ha v e little dicult y in assimilating the tags themselv es. Ho w ev er, it is

• ften

quite dicult to decide whic h tag is appropriate in a particular con text. The t w

• sections

4.1 and 4.2 therefore include examples and guidelines

• n

ho w to tag problematic cases. If y

• u

are uncertain ab

• ut

whether a giv en tag is correct

• r

not, refer to these sections in

• rder

to ensure a consisten tly annotated text. Section 4.1 discusses parts

• f

sp eec h that are easily confused and giv es guidelines

• n

ho w to tag suc h cases, while Section 4.2 con tains an alphab etical list

• f

sp ecic problematic w

• rds

and collo cations. Finally , Section 5 discusses some general tagging con v en tions. One general rule, ho w ev er, is so imp

• rtan

t that w e state it here. Man y texts are not mo dels

• f

go

• d

prose, and some con tain

• utrigh

t errors and slips

• f

the p en. Do not b e tempted to correct a tag to what it w

• uld

b e if the text w ere correct; rather, it is the incorrect w

• rd

that should b e tagged correctly .

• If

y

• u

ha v e questions that y

• u

do not nd co v ered, b e sure to let us kno w so that w e can incorp

• rate

a discussion

• f

them in to up dates

• f

this guide. 2 List

• f

parts

• f

sp eec h with corresp

• nding

tag Adjectiv e|JJ Hyphenated comp

• unds

that are used as mo diers are tagged as adjectiv es (JJ). EXAMPLES: happ y-go-luc ky/JJ

• ne-of-a-kind/JJ

run-of-the-mill/JJ Ordinal n um b ers are tagged as adjectiv es (JJ), as are comp

• unds
• f

the form n

• th

X-est, lik e f

• urth-lar

gest. Adjectiv e, comparativ e|JJR Adjectiv es with the comparativ e ending

• er

and a comparativ e meaning are tagged JJR. M

• r

e and l ess when used as adjectiv es, as in m

• r

e

• r

less mail, are also tagged as JJR. M

• r

e and l ess can also b e tagged as JJR when they

• ccur

b y themselv es; see the en tries for these w

• rds

in Section 4.2. Adjectiv es with a comparativ e meaning but without the comparativ e ending

• er,

lik e s up erior, should simply b e tagged as JJ. Adjectiv es with the ending

• er

but without a strictly comparativ e meaning (\more X"), lik e f urther in f urther details, should also simply b e tagged as JJ. Adjectiv e, sup erlativ e| JJS Adjectiv es with the sup erlativ e ending

• est

(as w ell as w

• rst)

are tagged as JJS. M

• st

and l e ast when used as adjectiv es, as in t he most

• r

the le ast mail, are also tagged as JJS. M

• st

and l e ast can also b e tagged as JJS when they

• ccur

b y themselv es; see the en tries for these w

• rds

in Section 4.2. Adjectiv es with a sup erlativ e meaning but without the sup erlativ e ending

• est,

lik e f irst, l ast

• r

u nsurp asse d, should simply b e tagged as JJ.

SLIDE 4 2 LIST OF P AR TS OF SPEECH WITH CORRESPONDING T A G 2 Adv erb|RB This category includes most w

• rds

that end in

• ly

as w ell as degree w

• rds

lik e q uite, t

• and

v ery, p

• sthead

mo diers lik e e nough and i nde e d (as in g

• d

enough, v ery wel l inde e d), and negativ e mark ers lik e n

• t,

n ' t and n ever. Adv erb, comparativ e|RBR Adv erbs with the comparativ e ending

• er

but without a strictly comparativ e meaning, lik e l ater in W e c an always c

• me

by later, should simply b e tagged as RB. Adv erb, sup erlativ e |RBS Article|DT (see \Determiner") Cardinal n um b er|CD Common noun, plural|NNS (see \Noun, plural") Common noun, singular

• r

mass|NN (see \Noun, singular

• r

mass") Comparativ e adjectiv e|JJR (see \Adjectiv e, comparativ e") Comparativ e adv erb|RBR (see \Adv erb, comparativ e") Conjunction, co

• rdinating|

CC (see \Co

• rdinating

conjunction") Conjunction, sub

• rdinati

ng| IN (see \Prep

• sition
• r

sub

• rdinating

conjunction") Co

• rdinating

conjunction |CC This category includes a nd, b ut, n

• r,
• r,

y et (as in Y et it's che ap, c he ap yet go

• d),

as w ell as the mathematical

• p

erators p lus, m inus, l ess, t imes (in the sense

• f

\m ultipli ed b y") and

• ver

(in the sense

• f

\divided b y"), when they are sp elled

• ut.

F

• r

in the sense

• f

\b ecause" is a co

• rdinating

conjunction (CC) rather than a sub

• rdinating

conjunction (IN). EXAMPLE: He ask ed to b e transferred, for/CC he w as unhapp y . S

• in

the sense

• f

\so that,"

• n

the

• ther

hand, is a sub

• rdinating

conjunction (IN). Determiner| DT This category includes the articles a (n), e very, n

• and

t he, the indenite determiners a nother, a ny and s

• me,

e ach, e ither (as in e ither way), n either (as in n either de cision), t hat, t hese, t his and t hose, and instances

• f

a l l and b

• th

when they do not precede a determiner

• r

p

• ssessiv

e pronoun (as in a l l r

• ads
• r

b

• th

times). (Instances

• f

a l l

• r

b

• th

that do precede a determiner

• r

p

• ssessiv

e pronoun are tagged as predeterminers (PDT).) Since an y noun phrase can con tain at most

• ne

determiner, the fact that s uch can

• ccur

together with a determiner (as in t he

• nly

such c ase) means that it should b e tagged as an adjectiv e (JJ), unless it precedes a determiner, as in s uch a go

• d

time, in whic h case it is a predeterminer (PDT).

SLIDE 5 2 LIST OF P AR TS OF SPEECH WITH CORRESPONDING T A G 3 Exclamation|UH (see \In terjection") Existen tial t her e|EX Existen tial t her e is the unstressed t her e that triggers in v ersion

• f

the inected v erb and the logical sub ject

• f

a sen tence. EXAMPLES: There/EX w as a part y in progress. There/EX ensued a melee. F

• reign

w

• rd|FW

Use y

• ur

judgmen t as to what is a foreign w

• rd.

F

• r

me, y

• ga

is an NN, while b ^ ete noir e and p ersona non gr ata should b e tagged b ^ ete/FW noir e/FW and p ersona/FW non/FW gr ata/FW, resp ectiv ely . Gerund|VBG (see \V erb, gerund

• r

presen t participle") In terjection |UH This category includes m y (as in M y, what a gor ge

• us

day),

• h,

p le ase, s e e (as in S e e, it's like this), u h, w el l and y es, among

• thers.

List item mark er|LS This category includes letters and n umerals when they are used to iden tify items in a list. Mo dal v erb|MD This category includes all v erbs that don't tak e an

• s

ending in the third p erson singular presen t: c an, c

• uld,

(d ar e), m ay, m ight, m ust,

• ught,

s hal l, s hould, w il l, w

• uld.

Negation|RB (see \Adv erb") Noun, plural|NNS Noun, singular

• r

mass|NN Numeral, cardinal|CD (see \Cardinal n um b er") Numeral,

• rdinal|JJ

(see \Adjectiv e") Ordinal n um b er|JJ (see \Adjectiv e") P articipl e, past|VBN (see \V erb, past participle") P articipl e, presen t|VBG (see \V erb, gerund

• r

presen t participle") P article|R P This category includes a n um b er

• f

mostly monosyllabi c w

• rds

that also double as directional adv erbs and prep

• sitions.

Consult the headings \IN

• r

RB," \IN

• r

RP" and \RB

• r

RP" in Section 4.1 for further details.

SLIDE 6 2 LIST OF P AR TS OF SPEECH WITH CORRESPONDING T A G 4 P ast participl e|VBN (see \V erb, past participle") P ast tense v erb|VBD (see \V erb, past tense") P ersonal pronoun|PRP (see also \P

• ssessiv

e pronoun") This category includes the p ersonal pronouns prop er, without regard for case distinctions (I , m e, y

• u,

h e, h im, etc.), the reexiv e pronouns ending in

• self
• r
• selves,

and the nominal p

• ssessiv

e pronouns m ine, y

• urs,

h is, h ers,

• urs

and t heirs. The adjectiv al p

• ssessiv

e forms m y, y

• ur,

h is, h er, i ts,

• ur

and t heir,

• n

the

• ther

hand, are tagged PRP$. P

• ssessiv

e ending|POS The p

• ssessiv

e ending

• n

nouns ending in ' s

• r

' is split

• b

y the tagging algorithm and tagged as if it w ere a separate w

• rd.

EXAMPLES: John/NNP 's/POS idea the paren ts/NNS '/POS distress P

• ssessiv

e pronoun|PRP$ (see also \P ersonal pronoun") This category includes the adjectiv al p

• ssessiv

e forms m y, y

• ur,

h is, h er, i ts,

• ne's,
• ur

and t heir. The nominal p

• ssessiv

e pronouns m ine, y

• urs,

h is, h ers,

• urs

and t heirs are tagged as p ersonal pronouns (PRP). P

• ssessiv

e wh-pronoun|WP$ This category includes the wh-w

• rd

w hose. Predetermin er| PDT This category includes the follo wing determinerlik e elemen ts when they precede an article

• r

p

• ssessiv

e pronoun. EXAMPLES: all/PDT his marbles nary/PDT a soul b

• th/PDT

the girls quite/PDT a mess half/PDT his time rather/PDT a n uisance man y/PDT a mo

• n

suc h/PDT a go

• d

time Prep

• sition
• r

sub

• rdinat

in g conjunction| IN W e mak e no explicit distinction b et w een prep

• sitions

and sub

• rdinating

conjunctions. (The distinction is not lost, ho w ev er|a prep

• sition

is an IN that precedes a noun phrase

• r

a prep

• sitional

phrase, and a sub

• rdinate

conjunction is an IN that precedes a clause.) The prep

• sition

t

• has

its

• wn

sp ecial tag TO. Presen t participl e| VBG (see \V erb, gerund

• r

presen t participle") Presen t tense v erb|VBP

• r

VBZ (see \V erb, presen t tense,

• ther

than 3rd p erson singular" and \V erb, presen t tense, 3rd p erson singular)" Pronoun, p ersonal|PRP (see \P ersonal pronoun")

SLIDE 7 2 LIST OF P AR TS OF SPEECH WITH CORRESPONDING T A G 5 Pronoun, p

• ssessiv

e|PRP$ (see \P

• ssessiv

e pronoun") Prop er noun, plural|NNPS Prop er noun, singular|NNP Sub

• rdinat

in g conjunction| IN (see \Prep

• sition
• r

sub

• rdinating

conjunction") Sup erlativ e adjectiv e|JJS (see \Adjectiv e, sup erlativ e") Sup erlativ e adv erb|RBS (see \Adv erb, sup erlativ e") Sym b

• l|SYM

This tag should b e used for mathematical , scien tic and tec hnical sym b

• ls
• r

expressions that aren't w

• rds
• f

English. It should not used for an y and all tec hnical expressions. F

• r

instance, the names

• f

c hemicals, units

• f

measuremen ts (including abbreviations thereof ) and the lik e should b e tagged as nouns. T her e, existen tial |EX (see \Existen tial t her e") t

• |TO

T

• is

tagged TO, regardless

• f

whether it is a prep

• sition
• r

an innitiv al mark er. V erb, base form|VB This tag subsumes imp erativ es, innitiv es and sub junctiv es. EXAMPLES: Imp erativ e: Do/VB it. Innitiv e: Y

• u

should do/VB it. W e w an t them to do/VB it. W e made them do/VB it. Sub junctiv e: W e suggested that he do/VB it. V erb, past tense|VBD This category includes the conditional form

• f

the v erb t

• b

e. EXAMPLES: If I w ere/VBD ric h, : : : If I w ere/VBD to win the lottery , : : : V erb, gerund

• r

presen t participle |VBG V erb, past participle| VBN V erb, presen t tense,

• ther

than 3rd p erson singular|VBP T ak e care to correct VB to VBP where appropriate. V erb, presen t tense, 3rd p erson singular|VBZ Wh-determiner |WD T

SLIDE 8 3 LIST OF T A GS WITH CORRESPONDING P AR T OF SPEECH 6 This category includes w hich, as w ell as t hat when it is used as a relativ e pronoun. Wh-pronoun|W P This category includes w hat, w ho and w hom. Wh-pronoun, p

• ssessiv

e|WP$ (see \P

• ssessiv

e wh-pronoun") Wh-adv erb|WRB This category includes h

• w,

w her e, w hy, etc. W hen in a temp

• ral

sense is tagged WRB. In the sense

• f

\if,"

• n

the

• ther

hand, it is a sub

• rdinating

conjunction (IN). EXAMPLES: When/WRB he nally arriv ed, I w as

• n

m y w a y

• ut.

I lik e it when/IN y

• u

mak e dinner for me. 3 List

• f

tags with corresp

• nding

part

• f

sp eec h This section con tains a list

• f

tags in alphab etical

• rder

and the parts

• f

sp eec h corresp

• nding

to them. 1. CC Co

• rdinating

conjunction 2. CD Cardinal n um b er 3. DT Determiner 4. EX Existen tial t her e 5. FW F

• reign

w

• rd

6. IN Prep

• sition
• r

sub

• rdinating

conjunction 7. JJ Adjectiv e 8. JJR Adjectiv e, comparativ e 9. JJS Adjectiv e, sup erlativ e 10. LS List item mark er 11. MD Mo dal 12. NN Noun, singular

• r

mass 13. NNS Noun, plural 14. NNP Prop er noun, singular 15. NNPS Prop er noun, plural 16. PDT Predeterminer 17. POS P

• ssessiv

e ending 18. PRP P ersonal pronoun 19. PRP$ P

• ssessiv

e pronoun 20. RB Adv erb 21. RBR Adv erb, comparativ e 22. RBS Adv erb, sup erlativ e 23. RP P article 24. SYM Sym b

• l

25. TO t

• 26.

UH In terjection 27. VB V erb, base form 28. VBD V erb, past tense 29. VBG V erb, gerund

• r

presen t participle

SLIDE 9 4 PR OBLEMA TIC CASES 7 30. VBN V erb, past participle 31. VBP V erb, non-3rd p erson singular presen t 32. VBZ V erb, 3rd p erson singular presen t 33. WDT Wh-determiner 34. WP Wh-pronoun 35. WP$ P

• ssessiv

e wh-pronoun 36. WRB Wh-adv erb 4 Problemati c cases This section discusses dicult tagging decisions. Section 4.1 discusses parts

• f

sp eec h that are easily confused and guidelines

• n

ho w to tag suc h cases. Section 4.2 con tains an alphab etical list

• f

sp ecic problematic w

• rds

and collo cations. 4.1 Confusing parts

• f

sp eec h This section discusses parts

• f

sp eec h that are easily confused and giv es guidelines

• n

ho w to tag suc h cases. CC

• r

DT When they are the rst mem b ers

• f

the double conjunctions b

• th

: : : and, e ither : : :

• r

and n either : : : nor, b

• th,

e ither and n either are tagged as co

• rdinating

conjunctions (CC), not as determiners (DT). EXAMPLES: Either/DT c hild could sing. But: Either/CC a b

• y

could sing

• r/CC

a girl could dance. Either/CC a b

• y
• r/CC

a girl could sing. Either/CC a b

• y
• r/CC

girl could sing. Be a w are that e ither

• r

n either can sometimes function as determiners (DT) ev en in the presence

• f
• r
• r

n

• r.

EXAMPLE: Either/DT b

• y
• r/CC

girl could sing. CD

• r

JJ Num b er-n um b er com binations should b e tagged as adjectiv es (JJ) if they ha v e the same distribution as adjectiv es. EXAMPLES: a 50{3/JJ victory (cf. a handy/JJ victory) Hyphenated fractions

• ne-half,

t hr e e-fourths, s even-eighths,

• ne-and-a-half,

s even-and-thr e e-eighths should b e tagged as adjectiv es (JJ) when they are prenominal mo diers, but as adv erbs (RB) if they could b e replaced b y d

• uble
• r

t wic e. EXAMPLES:

• ne-half/JJ

cup; cf. a full/JJ cup

• ne-half/RB

the amoun t; cf. t wice/RB the amoun t; double/RB the amoun t CD

• r

NN

SLIDE 10 4 PR OBLEMA TIC CASES 8 Sometimes, it is unclear whether

• ne

is cardinal n um b er

• r

a noun. In general, it should b e tagged as a cardinal n um b er (CD) ev en when its sense is not clearly that

• f

a n umeral. EXAMPLE:

• ne/CD
• f

the b est reasons But if it could b e pluralized

• r

mo died b y an adjectiv e in a particular con text, it is a common noun (NN). EXAMPLE: the

• nly

(go

• d)
• ne/NN
• f

its kind (cf. the

• nly

(go

• d)
• nes/NNS
• f

their kind) In the collo cation a nother

• ne,
• ne

should also b e tagged as a common noun (NN). Hyphenated fractions

• ne-half,

t hr e e-fourths, s even-eighths,

• ne-and-a-half,

s even-and-thr e e-eighths should b e tagged as adjectiv es (JJ) when they are prenominal mo diers, but as adv erbs (RB) if they could b e replaced b y d

• uble
• r

t wic e. EXAMPLES:

• ne-half/JJ

cup; cf. a full/JJ cup

• ne-half/RB

the amoun t; cf. t wice/RB the amoun t; double/RB the amoun t CD

• r

RB Num b er-n um b er com binations should b e tagged as adv erbs (RB) if they ha v e the same distribution as adv erbs. EXAMPLES: They w

• n

50{3/RB. (cf. They w

• n

handily/RB.) Hyphenated fractions

• ne-half,

t hr e e-fourths, s even-eighths,

• ne-and-a-half,

s even-and-thr e e-eighths should b e tagged as adjectiv es (JJ) when they are prenominal mo diers, but as adv erbs (RB) if they could b e replaced b y d

• uble
• r

t wic e. EXAMPLES:

• ne-half/JJ

cup; cf. a full/JJ cup

• ne-half/RB

the amoun t; cf. t wice/RB the amoun t; double/RB the amoun t DT

• r

CC|see CC

• r

DT DT

• r

NN When determiners are used pronominally , i.e. without a head noun, they should still b e tagged as determiners (DT)|not as common nouns (NN). EXAMPLES: I can't stand this/DT. I'll tak e b

• th/DT.

Either/DT w

• uld

b e ne. DT

• r

PDT When p

• ten

tial predeterminers precede an article

• r

p

• ssessiv

e pronoun, they are predeterminers (PDT). When they do not, they are determiners (DT).

SLIDE 11 4 PR OBLEMA TIC CASES 9 EXAMPLES: all/DT girls; all/DT y

• ung

girls The girls all/DT left. b

• th/DT

b

• ys;

b

• th/DT

little b

• ys

The b

• ys

b

• th/DT

left. all/PDT the girls; all/PDT the y

• ung

girls b

• th/PDT

the b

• ys;

b

• th/PDT

the little b

• ys

EX

• r

RB Existen tial t her e is unstressed and triggers in v ersion

• f

the inected v erb and the logical sub ject

• f

a sen tence. EXAMPLES: There/EX w as a part y in progress. There/EX ensued a melee. By con trast, when t her e is used adv erbially , it receiv es at least some stress and do es not trigger in v ersion. EXAMPLES: There/RB, a part y w as in progress. There/RB, a melee ensued. Existen tial and adv erbial t her e can b

• th
• ccur

together in the same sen tence. EXAMPLE: There/EX w as a part y in progress there/RB. IN

• r

RB It is

• ften

dicult to distinguish prep

• sitions

and adv erbs. In general, prep

• sitions

are asso ciated with an immediately follo wing noun phrase. Ho w ev er, they ma y b e \stranded," i.e. their

• b

ject ma y

• ccur

someplace

• ther

than imm ediately follo wing the prep

• sition.

F

• r

instance, in the example b elo w, the stranded prep

• sition

w ithout is asso ciated with t he cr e dit c ar d. EXAMPLE: the credit card y

• u

w

• n't

w an t to do without/IN Prep

• sitions

ma y also imm ediately precede prep

• sitional

phrases. This means that

• ne

prep

• sition

can precede another (t

• coun

ts as a regular prep

• sition

in this con text), as in the follo wing examples: EXAMPLES: blaze

• ut/IN

in to/IN space come

• ut/IN
• f/IN

the w

• dw
• rk

lo

• k

up/IN to/TO someone b ecause/IN

• f/IN

her late arriv al to plan t

• n/IN

in to/IN spring Ab

• ut

and a r

• und

when used to mean \appro ximately" should b e tagged as adv erbs (RB), not as prep

• sitions

(IN). C lose(r) and n e ar(er) in collo cation with t

• should

b e tagged as adv erbs (RB), not as prep

• sitions

(IN). If a putativ e prep

• sition

is not asso ciated with an explicitly expressed

• b

ject an ywhere in the clause, it should b e tagged as an adv erb (RB)|or as a particle (RP) (see \RB

• r

RP"). EXAMPLE: W e'll just ha v e to do without/RB.

SLIDE 12 4 PR OBLEMA TIC CASES 10 IN

• r

RP Both prep

• sitions

and particles

• ccur

in collo cation with v erbs and are

• ften

dicult to distinguish from

• ne

another. It is imp

• rtan

t to realize that the idiomaticit y

• f

a collo cation is not a fo

• lpro
• f

criterion that a w

• rd

is a particle. After briey discussing the syn tactic prop erties

• f

prep

• sitions,

w e giv e some diagnostic tests for the distinction b et w een prep

• sitions

and particles. As noted ab

• v

e (\IN

• r

RB"), prep

• sitions

are generally asso ciated with an immediately follo wing noun phrase. Ho w ev er, they ma y b e \stranded," i.e. their

• b

ject ma y

• ccur

at the b eginning

• f

a clause rather than immedia tely follo wing the prep

• sition.

F

• r

instance, in the examples b elo w, the stranded prep

• sitions

a t and a gainst are asso ciated with t he pictur e and w hat, resp ectiv ely . EXAMPLES: the picture (whic h/that) w e will lo

• k

at/IN next He do esn't kno w what he is up against/IN. Prep

• sitions

ma y also imm ediately precede prep

• sitional

phrases. This means that

• ne

prep

• sition

can precede another (t

• coun

ts as a regular prep

• sition

in this con text), as in the examples b elo w. T

• b

e tagged as IN rather than as RP , a putativ e prep

• sition

m ust b e more closely asso ciated with the follo wing prep

• sitional

phrase than with the v erb. EXAMPLES: blaze

• ut/IN

in to/IN space come

• ut/IN
• f/IN

the w

• dw
• rk

lo

• k

up/IN to/TO someone b ecause/IN

• f/IN

her late arriv al tak e millions

• f

dollars

• ut/IN
• f/IN

circulation (cf. *tak e

• ut

milli

• ns
• f

dollars

• f

circulation) If a putativ e prep

• sition

is not asso ciated with an

• b

ject an ywhere in the clause, it should b e tagged either as a particle (RP)|or as an adv erb (RB) (see \RB

• r

RP"). A w

• rd

is a particle (RP) rather than a prep

• sition

(IN):

• if

it can either precede

• r

follo w a noun phrase

• b

ject. EXAMPLE: She told

• /RP

her friends; she told her friends

• /RP

.

• if

when y

• u

replace a noun phrase

• b

ject b y a pronoun, the pronoun m ust precede the w

• rd.

EXAMPLES: She told them

• /RP;

*she told

• /RP

them. He p eeled it

• /RP;

*he p eeled

• /RP

it. If the results

• f

this test conict with the results

• f

the rst test, go b y the results

• f

the second. EXAMPLE: ???to run a bill up/RP; to run up/RP a bill; to run it up/RP; *to run up/RP it

• if

it can b e part

• f

a noun that is deriv ed from a particle-v erb collo cation. EXAMPLES: to break do wn/RP; breakdo wn to break through/RP; breakthrough to b e left

• v

er/RP; lefto v ers to push

• v

er/RP; pusho v er to put do wn/RP; putdo wn

SLIDE 13 4 PR OBLEMA TIC CASES 11 The results

• f

this test are

• ne-directional
• nly;

if there is no related noun, the w

• rd

can still b e a particle. EXAMPLES: to pass

• ut/RP;

*passout to pull

• /RP;

*pullo

• if

it b ears stress in clause-nal p

• sition

(this criterion

• nly

applies to monosyllabic w

• rds).

EXAMPLE: Wh y don't y

• u

come b y/RP? (vs. Real bargains are hard to come b y/IN) While particles usually

• ccur

in construction with v erbs, they can

• ccur

together with parts

• f

sp eec h that are deriv ed from v erbs as w ell. EXAMPLES: the cutting/NN

• /RP
• f

the top the setting/NN up/RP

• f

the problem He lo

• ks

w

• rn/JJ
• ut/RP

. A w

• rd

is a prep

• sition

(IN) rather than a particle (RP):

• if

it m ust precede a noun phrase

• b

ject. EXAMPLE: She stepp ed

• /IN

the train; *she stepp ed the train

• /IN.
• if

when y

• u

replace a noun phrase

• b

ject b y a pronoun, the pronoun cannot precede the w

• rd.

EXAMPLE: She has b een in to/IN it for a y ear; *she has b een it in to/IN for a y ear.

• if

it cannot b ear stress in clause-nal p

• sition

(this criterion

• nly

applies to monosyllabic w

• rds).

EXAMPLE: Real bargains are hard to come b y/IN. (vs. Wh y don't y

• u

come b y/RP?) IN

• r

VBG, VBN Putativ e prep

• sitions

ending in

• e

d

• r
• ing

should b e tagged as past participles (VBN)

• r

gerunds (VBG), resp ectiv ely , not as prep

• sitions

(IN). EXAMPLES: Gran ted/VBN that he is coming Pro vided/VBN that he comes According/VBG to reliable sources Concerning/VBG y

• ur

request

• f

last w eek IN

• r

WDT When t hat in tro duces complemen ts

• f

nouns, it is a sub

• rdinating

conjunction (IN). EXAMPLES: the fact that/IN y

• u're

here the claim that/IN angels ha v e wings

SLIDE 14 4 PR OBLEMA TIC CASES 12 But when t hat in tro duces relativ e clauses, it is a wh-pronoun (WDT),

• n

a par with w hich. EXAMPLE: a man that/WDT I kno w JJ

• r

CD|see CD

• r

JJ JJ

• r

JJR Adjectiv es with the comparativ e ending

• er

and a comparativ e meaning are tagged JJR. M

• r

e and l ess when used as adjectiv es, as in m

• r

e

• r

less mail, are also tagged as JJR. M

• r

e and l ess can also b e tagged as JJR when they

• ccur

b y themselv es; see the en tries for these w

• rds

in Section 4.2. Adjectiv es with a comparativ e meaning but without the comparativ e ending

• er,

lik e s up erior, should simply b e tagged as JJ. Con v ersely , adjectiv es with the ending

• er

but without a strictly comparativ e meaning (\more X"), lik e f urther in f urther details, should also simply b e tagged as JJ. JJ

• r

JJS Adjectiv es with the sup erlativ e ending

• est

(as w ell as w

• rst)

are tagged as JJS. M

• st

and l e ast when used as adjectiv es, as in t he most

• r

the le ast mail, are also tagged as JJS. M

• st

and l e ast can also b e tagged as JJS when they

• ccur

b y themselv es; see the en tries for these w

• rds

in Section 4.2. Adjectiv es with a sup erlativ e meaning but without the sup erlativ e ending

• est,

lik e f irst, l ast

• r

u nsurp asse d, should simply b e tagged as JJ. JJR

• r

JJ|see JJ

• r

JJR JJS

• r

JJ|see JJ

• r

JJS JJ

• r

NN Nouns that are used as mo diers, whether in isolation

• r

in sequences, should b e tagged as nouns (NN, NNS) rather than as adjectiv es (JJ). EXAMPLES: w

• l/NN

sw eater (vs. w

• llen/JJ

sw eater) terminal/NN t yp e (vs. terminal/JJ cancer) life/NN insurance/NN compan y Hyphenated mo diers,

• n

the

• ther

hand, should alw a ys b e tagged as adjectiv es (JJ). Th us, w e ha v e dieren t part-of-sp eec h assignmen ts in examples lik e the follo wing|dep ending

• n

the

• rthographic

con v en tions used: EXAMPLES: income-tax/JJ return; income/NN tax/NN return v alue-added/JJ tax; v alue/NN added/VBN tax Prenominal mo diers that are gradable (i.e. they can b e mo died b y a degree adv erb

• r

form a comparativ e

• r

sup erlativ e) should b e tagged as adjectiv es (JJ), not as nouns (NN). EXAMPLES: a fun/JJ part y (cf. a really fun part y , the most fun part y I ev er w en t to) Color w

• rds

should b e tagged as nouns (NN, NNS) when they are used as names since they ha v e the distribution

• f

nouns|i.e. they can b e mo died b y adjectiv es and they ha v e an

• v

ert plural.

SLIDE 15 4 PR OBLEMA TIC CASES 13 EXAMPLES: That's a nice red/NN. Not to

• man

y reds/NNS go with that purple. Also note the follo wing con trast: EXAMPLES: These plan ts are dark green/JJ. These plan ts are a dark green/NN. Generic adjectiv es should b e tagged as adjectiv es (JJ) and not as plural common nouns (NNS), ev en when they trigger sub ject-v erb agreemen t, if they can b e mo died b y adv erbs. EXAMPLES: The (v ery) ric h/JJ in this coun try pa y far to

• few

taxes. The (m ultiply) handicapp ed/JJ But if a putativ e adjectiv e can't b e mo died b y an adv erb, it should b e tagged as a common noun (NN). EXAMPLES: Little go

• d/NN

will come

• f

it. (cf. *V ery go

• d

will come

• f

it.) When used as prenominal mo diers, t

• p,

s ide, b

• ttom,

f r

• nt

and b ack should b e tagged as adjectiv es (JJ). JJ

• r

NNP W

• rds

that refer to languages

• r

nations, lik e E nglish

• r

F r ench, can b e either adjectiv es (JJ)

• r

prop er nouns (NNP , NNPS). EXAMPLES: English/JJ cuisine tends to b e uninspired. The English/NNPS tend to b e uninspired co

• ks.

In prenominal p

• sition,

suc h w

• rds

are almost alw a ys adjectiv es (JJ). Do not b e led to tag suc h w

• rds

as prop er nouns just b ecause they

• ccur

in idiomatic collo cations. EXAMPLES: Chinese/JJ cabbage; Chinese/JJ co

• king

W elsh/JJ rarebit; W elsh/JJ p

• etry

Ho w ev er, note: EXAMPLE: an English/NNP sen tence (cf. a sen tence

• f

English/NNP) The t w

• parts
• f

comp

• unds

suc h as W est German

• r

N

• rth

Kor e an should b e tagged iden tically|either as JJ

• r

NNP . EXAMPLE: the W est/JJ German/JJ mark He's a W est/NNP German/NNP . Hyphenated comp

• und

prop er nouns acting as mo diers, suc h as G r amm-R udman in t he Gr amm-R udman A ct , as w ell as comp

• unds

con taining prop er nouns as their second constituen t, suc h as m id-Mar ch

• r

n

• n-NA

TO , should b e tagged as prop er nouns (NNP) rather than as adjectiv es (JJ).

SLIDE 16 4 PR OBLEMA TIC CASES 14 JJ

• r

RB While most adv erbs formed from adjectiv es end in

• ly,

not all do. The crucial criterion is whether a w

• rd

mo dies a noun, in whic h case it is an adjectiv e (JJ),

• r

a non-noun, in whic h case it is an adv erb (RB). EXAMPLES: rapid/JJ gro wth/NN rapid/RB gro wing/VBG plan ts V exing cases arise in connection with comp

• und

adjectiv es that are sp elled as t w

• w
• rds,

suc h as m ild avor e d. T ag b

• th

parts

• f

suc h sequences as JJ|th us, m ild/JJ avor e d/JJ. T ak e care not to tag predicate adjectiv es as adv erbs. Th us, in m ake life simple, s imple is an adjectiv e; cf. the unacceptabilit y

• f

m ake life simply. JJ

• r

VBG The distinction b et w een adjectiv es (JJ) and gerunds/presen t participles (VBG) is

• ften

v ery dicult to mak e. There are a n um b er

• f

tests that y

• u

can use to decide. Be sure to apply these tests to the en tire sen tence con taining the w

• rd

that y

• u

are unsure

• f,

not just the w

• rd

in isolation, since the con text is imp

• rtan

t in determining the part

• f

sp eec h

• f

a w

• rd.

A w

• rd

is an adjectiv e (JJ):

• if

it is gradable|that is, if it can b e preceded b y a degree adv erb lik e v ery,

• r

if it allo ws the formation

• f

a comparativ e. EXAMPLE: Her talk w as v ery in teresting/JJ. Her talk w as more in teresting/JJ than theirs.

• if

there is a corresp

• nding

u n- form with the

• pp
• site

meaning. EXAMPLE: an in teresting/JJ con v ersation; an unin teresting/JJ con v ersation

• if

it

• ccurs

in construction with b e, and b e could b e replaced b y b e c

• me,

f e el, l

• k,

r emain, s e em

• r

s

• und.

EXAMPLES: The con v ersation b ecame depressing/JJ. That place feels depressing/JJ. That place lo

• ks

depressing/JJ. That place remains depressing/JJ. That place seems depressing/JJ. That place sounds depressing/JJ.

• if

it precedes a noun, and the corresp

• nding

v erb is in transitiv e,

• r

do es not ha v e the same meaning. EXAMPLES: an app ealing/JJ face; *a face that app eals an app etizing/JJ dish; *a dish that app etizes a rev

• lving/JJ

fund; *a fund that rev

• lv

es a winning/JJ smile; *a smile that wins But:

SLIDE 17 4 PR OBLEMA TIC CASES 15 the existing/VBG safeguards; safeguards that exist a holding/VBG compan y; a compan y that holds another

• ne

a managing/VBG director; a director who manages the ruling/VBG class; the class that rules Note the follo wing con trast: a striking/JJ hat *the hat will strik e the striking/VBG teac hers the teac hers will strik e

• if

there is no corresp

• nding

v erb. EXAMPLE: a thoroughgoing/JJ in v estigation; *thoroughgo In connection with this p

• in

t, note that striking meaning dierences need not b e reected in terms

• f

dieren t parts

• f

sp eec h: EXAMPLES: the

• utgoing/JJ

presiden t; an

• utgoing/JJ

t yp e

• f

guy; *outgo an

• utstanding/JJ

record;

• utstanding/JJ

debts *outstand JJ

• r

VBN The distinction b et w een adjectiv es (JJ) and past participles (VBN) is

• ften

v ery dicult to mak e. There are a n um b er

• f

tests that y

• u

can use to decide. Be sure to apply these tests to the en tire sen tence con taining the w

• rd

that y

• u

are unsure

• f,

not just the w

• rd

in isolation, since the con text is imp

• rtan

t in determining the part

• f

sp eec h

• f

a w

• rd.

A w

• rd

is an adjectiv e (JJ):

• if

it is gradable|that is, if it can b e preceded b y a degree adv erb lik e v ery,

• r

if it allo ws the formation

• f

a comparativ e. EXAMPLE: He w as v ery surprised/JJ. He w as more surprised/JJ than she w as.

• if

there is a corresp

• nding

u n- form with the

• pp
• site

meaning. EXAMPLE: a h urried/JJ meeting; an unh urried/JJ meeting Be sure to c hec k whether there is a corresp

• nding

v erb b eginning with u n-. If there is, y

• u

cannot rely

• n

this test to determine whether the w

• rd

in question is an adjectiv e

• r

a participle, and y

• u

will ha v e to use the

• ther

tests. EXAMPLE: Y

• ur

sho elace has b een un tied/JJ ev er since w e started. I kno w|it got un tied/VBN b y acciden t.

SLIDE 18 4 PR OBLEMA TIC CASES 16 When applying the u n- test, b e sure to tak e the en tire con text in to accoun t. F

• r

instance, a rme d can b e either a JJ

• r

a VBN, dep ending

• n

its con text. EXAMPLE: W e need an armed/JJ guard. (cf. W e need an unarmed guard.) Armed/VBN with

• nly

a knife, : : : (cf. *Unarmed with

• nly

a knife, : : : )

• if

the w

• rd
• ccurs

in construction with b e, and b e could b e replaced b y b e c

• me,

f e el, l

• k,

r emain, s e em

• r

s

• und.

EXAMPLES: He b ecame in terested/JJ. He felt in terested/JJ. He lo

• k

ed surprised/JJ. He remained surprised/JJ. He seemed surprised/JJ. He sounded surprised/JJ. Ho w ev er, if the complemen t

• f

an y

• f

the v erbs listed ab

• v

e is mo died b y a b y

• phrase,

it should b e tagged as a participle (VBN) rather than as an adjectiv e (JJ). EXAMPLE: He remains guided/VBN b y these principles.

• if

the w

• rd
• ccurs

in construction with k e ep. EXAMPLES: They should b e k ept w ell w atered/JJ.

• if

it refers to a (resultan t) state rather than to a (sp ecic) ev en t. EXAMPLES: A t the time, I w as married/JJ. I w as mistak en/JJ (= wrong) the

• ther

da y . a mistak en/JJ decision

• if

a collo cation

• f

the form \X-ed N" cannot b e paraphrased as \N that has b een X-ed." EXAMPLES: a decided/JJ adv an tage; *an adv an tage that has b een decided a gro wn/JJ w

• man;

*a w

• man

that has b een gro wn married/JJ life; *life that has b een married w

• rried/JJ

faces; *faces that ha v e b een w

• rried

A w

• rd

is a past participle (VBN):

• if

it can b e follo w ed b y a b y phrase. If this criterion clashes with the p

• ssibilit

y

• f

inserting a degree adv erb, tag the w

• rd

as an adjectiv e (JJ), not as a participle (VBN). EXAMPLES: He w as in vited/VBN b y some friends

• f

hers. He w as v ery surprised/JJ b y her remarks.

• if

it refers to an (sp ecic) ev en t rather than to a (resultan t) state.

SLIDE 19 4 PR OBLEMA TIC CASES 17 EXAMPLES: I w as married/VBN

• n

a Sunda y . I w as mistak en/VBN for y

• u

the

• ther

da y . a case

• f

mistak en/VBN iden tit y

• if

the w

• rd
• ccurs

in construction with b e, and b e could b e replaced b y g et, but not b y b e c

• me.

EXAMPLE: I w as married/VBN

• n

a Sunda y . (cf. I got married, *I b ecame married) JJR

• r

NN M

• r

e and l ess should b e tagged as comparativ e adjectiv es (JJR), ev en when they

• ccur

without a head noun, as in m

• r

e

• f

the same. JJR

• r

RBR In collo cations suc h as S har es close d higher/lower, h igher and l

• wer

should b e tagged as comparativ e adv erbs (RBR). Cf. S har es close d mor e r e asonably/*r e asonable to day; also S har es close d up/RB by two p

• ints.

JJS

• r

NN M

• st

should b e tagged as a sup erlativ e adjectiv e (JJS) ev en when it

• ccurs

without a head noun, as in m

• st
• f

the time. The reason is that its distribution is parallel to that

• f
• ther

sup erlativ e adjectiv es; cf. the follo wing: EXAMPLES: most apples; most

• f

the apples most

• f

the bunc h the rip est apples; the rip est

• f

the apples the rip est

• f

the bunc h MD

• r

VB F

• rms
• f

the auxiliary v erbs b e, d

• and

h ave are tagged

• n

a par with those

• f
• ther

v erbs. NN

• r

CD|see CD

• r

NN NN

• r

DT|see DT

• r

NN NN

• r

JJ|see JJ

• r

NN NN

• r

JJR|see JJR

• r

NN NN

• r

NNS Whether a noun is tagged singular

• r

plural dep ends not

• n

its seman tic prop erties, but

• n

whether it triggers singular

• r

plural agreemen t

• n

a v erb. W e illustrate this b elo w for common nouns, but the same criterion also applies to prop er nouns. An y noun that triggers singular agreemen t

• n

a v erb should b e tagged as singular, ev en if it ends in nal

• s.

EXAMPLE: Linguistics/NN is/*are a dicult eld.

SLIDE 20 4 PR OBLEMA TIC CASES 18 If a noun is seman tically plural

• r

collectiv e, but triggers singular agreemen t, it should b e tagged as singular. EXAMPLES: The group/NN has/*ha v e disbanded. The jury/NN is/*are delib erating. On the

• ther

hand, if a noun triggers plural agreemen t

• n

a v erb, it should b e tagged as plural, ev en if it do es not end in

• s.

EXAMPLES: The facult y/NNS are

• n

strik e. The p

• lice/NNS

ha v e arriv ed

• n

the scene. Some nouns, lik e d ata, trigger v ariable n um b er agreemen t. Suc h nouns should b e tagged according to their usage in a particular text. If the agreemen t pattern cannot b e determined, tag suc h nouns as NNjNNS (see Section 5.2 for the v ertical slash con v en tion). Finally , note the follo wing con trast: Mec hanics/NN is an established discipline. The mec hanics/NNS

• f

the system are complex. The

• nly

exception to the agreemen t rule concerns nouns denoting amoun ts, whic h trigger singular agreemen t ev en though formally plural. Suc h nouns should b e tagged as plural noun (NNS). EXAMPLES: Three y ears/NNS is a long time. Tw elv e inc hes/NNS is a fo

• t.

NN

• r

NNP C hapter, E xhibit, F igur e, T able and the lik e should b e tagged as common nouns (NN) ev en when capitalized as part

• f

a reference. Abbreviations and initials should b e tagged as if they w ere sp elled

• ut.

Th us, S &L (whic h stands for s avings and lo an) should b e tagged as a common noun (NN), not as a prop er noun (NNP). By con trast, t he U.S. should b e tagged as t he U.S./NNP. Comp

• unds

con taining prop er nouns as their second constituen t, suc h as m id-Mar ch

• r

n

• n-NA

TO, should b e tagged as prop er nouns (NNP). NN

• r

PRP The indenite pronouns n aught, n

• ne

and comp

• unds
• f

a ny-, e very-, n

• and

s

• me-

with

• one

and

• thing

should b e tagged as nouns (NN), not as pronouns (PRP). The sequence n

• ne

should b e tagged n

• /DT
• ne/NN

; in its h yphenated form n

• -one,

it should b e tagged NN. NN

• r

RB Nouns that are used adv erbially should b e tagged as nouns (NN, NNS, NNP

• r

NNPS), not as adv erbs (RB). EXAMPLE: He comes b y Sunda ys/NNPS and holida ys/NNS. W

• rds

denoting p

• in

ts

• f

the compass are tagged as either nouns (NN)

• r

adv erbs (RB), dep ending

• n

their syn tactic prop erties. F

• r

instance, in T he ne ar est shopping c enter is two miles to the north

• f

her e, n

• rth

is preceded b y an article and should b e tagged as a common noun (NN). On the

• ther

hand, in the

SLIDE 21 4 PR OBLEMA TIC CASES 19 v arian t T he ne ar est shopping c enter is two miles north

• f

her e, n

• rth

is not preceded b y an article and should b e tagged as an adv erb (RB). The temp

• ral

expressions y ester day, t

• day

and t

• morr
• w

should b e tagged as nouns (NN) rather than as adv erbs (RB). Note that y

• u

can (marginally) pluralize them and that they allo w a p

• ssessiv

e form, b

• th
• f

whic h true adv erbs do not. The lo cativ e expression h

• me

when used b y itself in an adv erbial sense should b e tagged as an adv erb (RB). EXAMPLES: Call me when y

• u

get home/RB. Call me when y

• u

are at home/NN. NN

• r

VBG It is

• ften

dicult to tell whether a form in

• ing

is a noun (NN)

• r

a gerund (VBG), esp ecially since b

• th

nouns and gerunds can b e preceded b y an article

• r

a p

• ssessiv

e pronoun.

• If

a w

• rd

in

• ing

allo ws a plural, it is a noun (NN). EXAMPLES: The reading/NN for this class is dicult. (vs. The readings/NNS for this class are dicult.)

• While

b

• th

nouns and gerunds can b e preceded b y an article

• r

a p

• ssessiv

e pronoun,

• nly

a noun (NN) can b e mo died b y an adjectiv e, and

• nly

a gerund (VBG) can b e mo died b y an adv erb. EXAMPLES: Go

• d/JJ

co

• king/NN

is something to enjo y . Co

• king/VBG

w ell/RB is a useful skill.

• Similarly

, if the direct

• b

ject

• f

the v erb underlying the

• ing

form is expressed in an

• f-phrase,

the

• ing

form is a noun (NN), but if it is expressed directly as a noun phrase, the

• ing

form is a gerund (VBG). EXAMPLES: GM's closing/NN

• f

the plan t (cf. GM's rep eated/*rep eatedly closing

• f

the plan t; GM's closings

• f

the plan t) GM's closing/VBG the plan t (cf. GM's *rep eated/rep eatedly closing the plan t; *GM's closings the plan t)

• When

an

• ing

form is preceded b y a noun

• r

a sequence

• f

nouns, it is itself a noun. The resulting com bination can in turn precede a noun. EXAMPLES: the plan t/NN closing/NN unsa v

• ry

plan t/NN closing/NN tactics/NNS

• If

a collo cation X

• ing

N is equiv alen t (or similar) in meaning to N X-es, then the w

• rd

is a gerund (VBG). EXAMPLES: the declining/VBG pro ductivit y

• f

U.S. industry (cf. The pro ductivit y

• f

U.S. industry is declining) the acting/VBG vice presiden t (cf. a p erson who is acting as vice presiden t)

SLIDE 22 4 PR OBLEMA TIC CASES 20

• If

a collo cation X

• ing

N is not equiv alen t (or similar) in meaning to N X-es, then the w

• rd

is a noun (NN). In suc h cases, the collo cation can

• ften

b e paraphrased in terms

• f

an innitiv e

• r

a more clearly nominal construction. EXAMPLES: sp ending/NN reductions (reductions in sp ending, not: reductions that are sp ending) the mating/NN season (the season for mating, not: the season that is mating) a holding/NN pattern (a pattern

• f

holding, not: a pattern that is holding)

• Finally

, in man y cases there is nothing to do but to use the v ertical slash con v en tion (see Section 5.2). F

• r

instance, since a nchoring devic es could b e analyzed as either d evic es that anchor (gerund)

• r

as d evic es for anchoring (noun), it should b e tagged a nchoring/NN jVBG. NNS

• r

NN|see NN

• r

NNS NNP

• r

JJ|see JJ

• r

NNP NNP

• r

NNPS|see NN

• r

NNS NNPS

• r

NNP|see NN

• r

NNS PDT

• r

DT|see DT

• r

PDT PRP

• r

NN|see NN

• r

PRP PRP

• r

PRP$ The nominal p

• ssessiv

e pronouns m ine, y

• urs,

h is, h ers,

• urs

and t heirs are tagged as p ersonal pronouns (PRP), not as p

• ssessiv

e pronouns (PRP$). PRP$

• r

PRP|see PRP

• r

PRP$ RB

• r

CD|see CD

• r

RB RB

• r

EX|see EX

• r

RB RB

• r

IN|see IN

• r

RB RB

• r

JJ|see JJ

• r

RB RB

• r

NN|see NN

• r

RB RB

• r

RBR Adv erbs with the comparativ e ending

• er

but without a comparativ e meaning should also simply b e tagged as RB. F

• r

sp ecic w

• rds,

see Section 4.2.

SLIDE 23 4 PR OBLEMA TIC CASES 21 RB

• r

RBS M

• st,

though usually a sup erlativ e form, is a simple adv erb (RB) in the collo cation m

• st

every-. RB

• r

RP Adv erbs and particles can b e ev en more dicult to distinguish than particles and prep

• sitions.

Again, it is imp

• rtan

t to realize that the idiomati cit y

• f

a particular collo cation is not a diagnostic for the distinction. A w

• rd

is an adv erb (RB) rather than a particle (RP) if y

• u

can insert a manner adv erb b et w een the v erb and the w

• rd.

EXAMPLE: to sit calmly/RB b y/RB Note that striking meaning dierences are not alw a ys reected in dieren t part-of-sp eec h assignmen t. EXAMPLES: Bring the girls righ t up/RP . (= conduct) Bring the girls righ t up/RP . (= educate) O

• in

b ad ly

• ,

b etter

• ,

w el l

• and

w

• rse
• is

a particle (RP), not an adv erb (RB). In con texts concerning the mo v emen t

• f

currency

• r

commo dit y prices, u p and d

• wn

should b e tagged as adv erbs (RB), not as particles (RP). RBR

• r

RB|see RB

• r

RBR RBS

• r

RB|see RB

• r

RBS RP

• r

IN|see IN

• r

RP RP

• r

RB|see RB

• r

RP VB

• r

MD|see MD

• r

VB VB

• r

VBP If y

• u

are unsure whether a form is a sub junctiv e (VB)

• r

a presen t tense v erb (VBP), replace the sub ject b y a third p erson pronoun. If the v erb tak es an

• s

ending, then the

• riginal

form is a presen t tense v erb (VBP); if not, it is a sub junctiv e (VB). EXAMPLE: I recommended that y

• u

do/VB it. (cf. I recommended that he do/*do es it.) VBG

• r

IN|see IN

• r

VBG, VBN VBG

• r

JJ|see JJ

• r

VBG VBG

• r

NN|see NN

• r

VBG VBN

• r

IN|see IN

• r

VBG, VBN VBN

• r

JJ|see JJ

• r

VBN

SLIDE 24 4 PR OBLEMA TIC CASES 22 VBP

• r

VB|see VB

• r

VBP WDT

• r

IN|see IN

• r

WDT WDT

• r

WP If a wh-w

• rd

precedes a head noun, it is a wh-determiner. EXAMPLES: What/WDT kind do y

• u

w an t? I don't kno w what/WDT kind y

• u

w an t. Be sure to w ash whatev er/WDT fruit y

• u

buy . Whic h/WDT b

• k

do y

• u

lik e b etter? I don't kno w whic h/WDT b

• k

y

• u

lik e b etter. Whic h/WDT

• ne

do y

• u

lik e b etter? I don't kno w whic h/WDT

• ne

y

• u

lik e b etter. W hat(ever) is

• nly

tagged as a wh-determiner (WDT) when it precedes a head noun;

• therwise,

it is tagged as a simple wh-w

• rd

(WP). EXAMPLES: T ell me what/WP y

• u

w

• uld

lik e to eat. I'll get y

• u

whatev er/WP y

• u

w an t. W hich(ever),

• n

the

• ther

hand, is tagged as a wh-determiner (WDT) ev en when it do es not precede a head noun. This is parallel to the tagging

• f

determiners as DT when they are used b y themselv es. EXAMPLES: Whic h/WDT do y

• u

lik e b etter? I don't kno w whic h/WDT y

• u

lik e b etter. I'll get y

• u

whic hev er/WDT y

• u

w an t. WP

• r

WDT|see WDT

• r

WP 4.2 Sp ecic w

• rds

and collo cations This section con tains an alphab etical list

• f

sp ecic problematic w

• rds

and collo cations. ab

• ut

when used to mean \appro ximately" should b e tagged as an adv erb (RB), rather than a prep

• sition

(IN). all is usually a determiner (DT)

• r

a predeterminer (PDT), but it can also b e an adv erb (RB). EXAMPLES: all/RB around the Mediterranean all/RB through the nigh t The collo cation a t al l is tagged a t/IN al l/DT. all but is tagged a l l/RB but/RB. all righ t is tagged a l l/RB right/JJ. another

• ne

is tagged a nother/DT

• ne/NN.

SLIDE 25 4 PR OBLEMA TIC CASES 23 an y can b e a determiner (DT). EXAMPLES: W e don't ha v e an y/DT. Don't y

• u

w an t an y/DT more/JJR? Ho w ev er, when it precedes a comparativ e adv erb, it is an adv erb (RB). EXAMPLES: I can't run an y/RB further/RBR. I can't go

• n

lik e this an y/RB more/RBR. around when used to mean \appro ximately" should b e tagged as an adv erb (RB), rather than a prep

• sition

(IN). EXAMPLES: The p

• und

stabilized at around/RB 1.6973 dollars. (cf. The p

• und

stabilized at appro ximately 1.6973 dollars.) But: The p

• und

stabilized around/IN 1.6973 dollars. (cf. *The p

• und

stabilized appro ximately 1.6973 dollars.) as can b e an IN. EXAMPLES: It's just as/IN I though t. As/IN an un ten ured facult y mem b er, : : : But when it has a meaning akin to `so', it is an adv erb (RB). EXAMPLES: I'm not as/RB h ungry . This

• ne

is not as/RB go

• d.

Both t yp es

• f

a s

• ccur

in the collo cation a s : : : as. EXAMPLES: as/RB h ungry as/IN me as/RB man y as/IN he has at all is tagged a t/IN al l/DT. bac k should b e tagged as an adjectiv e (JJ) when used as a prenominal mo dier, as in b ack do

• r.

b

• ttom

should b e tagged as an adjectiv e (JJ) when used as a prenominal mo dier, as in b

• ttom

dr awer. but, though usually a co

• rdinating

conjunction, is a prep

• sition

(IN) when it means \except." EXAMPLE: ev eryb

• dy

but/IN me In v ery formal usage, it can b e an adv erb (RB) with the meaning \only ." EXAMPLE: W e can but/RB try .

SLIDE 26 4 PR OBLEMA TIC CASES 24 Chapter, as in C hapter 1, is an NN, not an NNP . close(r) In the collo cation c lose(r) to, c lose(r) is an adv erb (RB)

• r

comparativ e adv erb (RBR). EXAMPLE: W e w ere close/RB to home. W e w ere closer/RBR to home. coming should b e tagged as an adjectiv e (JJ) b y analogy to u p c

• ming.

data triggers v ariable n um b er agreemen t and should b e tagged according to its use in a particular text. If the agreemen t pattern cannot b e determined, tag it as NNjNNS (see Section 5.2 for the v ertical slash con v en tion). dear in O h de ar and D e ar me is an exclamation (UH). In Y es, de ar,

• n

the

• ther

hand, it is used as a true v

• cativ

e and should b e tagged as a noun (NN). Finally , in salutations lik e D e ar Martin, it should b e tagged as an adjectiv e (JJ). do wn should b e tagged as an adv erb (RB), not as a particle (RP), in con texts concerning the mo v emen t

• f

currency

• r

commo dit y prices. due in the collo cation d ue to is a prep

• sition

(IN). Otherwise, it is an adjectiv e (JJ). EXAMPLES: due/IN to/TO the storm The b

• ks

are due/JJ

• n

the due/JJ date. eac h

• ther

should b e tagged e ach/DT

• ther/JJ.

far, though usually an adv erb (RB), can also b e an adjectiv e (JJ). EXAMPLE: She liv es far/RB a w a y . She liv es far/RB from/IN here. The far/JJ side

• f

the mo

• n

In the collo cation f ar(ther) fr

• m,

f ar(ther) is an adv erb (RB)

• r

comparativ e adv erb (RBR). EXAMPLE: W e w ere far/RB from home. W e w ere farther/RBR from home. F urther is treated

• n

a par with f arther. Figure, as in F igur e 1, is an NN, not an NNP . t is an adjectiv e (JJ) in the expression t

• se

e t. for in the sense

• f

\b ecause" is a co

• rdinating

conjunction (CC), not a sub

• rdinating

conjunction (IN).

SLIDE 27 4 PR OBLEMA TIC CASES 25 EXAMPLE: He ask ed to b e transferred, for/CC he w as unhapp y . fron t should b e tagged as an adjectiv e (JJ) when used as a prenominal mo dier, as in f r

• nt

do

• r.

further, lik e f arther, is a comparativ e adv erb (RBR) in the con text f urther fr

• m.

half can b e an adjectiv e (JJ), a noun (NN)

• r

a predeterminer (PDT). It is an adjectiv e (JJ) if it imm ediately precedes a noun, a predeterminer (PDT) if it imm ediately precedes an article

• r

a p

• ssessiv

e pronoun, and a noun (NN)

• therwise.

EXAMPLES: a half/JJ p

• in

t half/PDT his time; half/PDT the time half/NN

• f

the time The h yphenated fraction

• ne-half

should b e tagged as an adjectiv e (JJ) when it is a prenominal mo dier, but as an adv erb (RB) if it could b e replaced b y d

• uble
• r

t wic e. EXAMPLES:

• ne-half/JJ

cup; cf. a full/JJ cup

• ne-half/RB

the amoun t; cf. t wice/RB the amoun t; double/RB the amoun t hers, as in T hat's hers, is a PRP , not a PRP$. his, as in T hat's his, is a PRP , not a PRP$. ho w ev er is usually a simple adv erb (RB). EXAMPLES: Ho w ev er/RB, that time has not y et come. There seems to b e a problem, ho w ev er/RB. It can also (rarely) b e a wh-adv erb (WRB). EXAMPLES: Ho w ev er/WRB m uc h he w an ts to, he can't. I'll do it ho w ev er/WRB he w an ts me to. later should b e tagged as a simple adv erb (RB) rather than as a comparativ e adv erb (RBR), unless its meaning is clearly comparativ e. A useful diagnostic is that the comparativ e l ater can b e preceded b y e ven

• r

s til l. EXAMPLES: I'll get it around to it so

• ner
• r

later/RB. If y

• u

don't h urry , w e'll arriv e (ev en) later/RBR than y

• ur

mother. less should b e tagged as a comparativ e adjectiv e (JJR) when it is used without a head noun and it corresp

• nds

to the

• b

ject

• f

a v erb

• r

prep

• sition.

It should b e tagged as a comparativ e adv erb (RBR) when its use is parallel to

• ther

adv erbs.

SLIDE 28 4 PR OBLEMA TIC CASES 26 EXAMPLES: Y

• u

should eat less/JJR (in terms

• f

quan tit y). (cf. Y

• u

should eat less/JJR c heese.) Y

• u

should eat less/RBR (in terms

• f

frequency). (cf. Y

• u

should eat rarely/RB.) Y

• u

should w

• rk

less/RBR. (cf. Y

• u

should w

• rk

harder/RBR.) Less should b e tagged as a comparativ e adjectiv e (JJR) ev en when it

• ccurs

without a head noun, as in l ess

• f

a pr

• blem.

Less in the sense

• f

m inus should b e tagged as a co

• rdinating

conjunction (CC). little is an adjectiv e (JJ) in a little bit, a little bit mor e and a little mor e. lot is a noun (NN) in a lot and a lot mor e. man y is a PDT when it immediately precedes an article. In general, ho w ev er, it is an adjectiv e (JJ), since it can b e preceded b y an article

• r

a p ersonal pronoun. EXAMPLES: man y/PDT a/DT storm y nigh t the/DT man y/JJ faces

• f

Go d maxim um, as in m aximum toler anc e, is a noun (NN), not an adjectiv e (JJ). mine, as in T hat's mine, is a PRP , not a PRP$. minim um, as in m inimum wage, is a noun (NN), not an adjectiv e (JJ). more should b e tagged as a comparativ e adjectiv e (JJR) when it is used without a head noun and it corresp

• nds

to the

• b

ject

• f

a v erb

• r

prep

• sition.

It should b e tagged as a comparativ e adv erb (RBR) when its use is parallel to

• ther

adv erbs. EXAMPLES: Y

• u

should eat more/JJR (in terms

• f

quan tit y). (cf. Y

• u

should eat more/JJR fruit.) Y

• u

should eat more/RBR (in terms

• f

frequency). (cf. Y

• u

should eat

• ften/RB.)

Y

• u

should relax more/RBR. (cf. Y

• u

should w

• rk

harder/RBR.) M

• r

e should b e tagged as a comparativ e adjectiv e (JJR) ev en when it

• ccurs

without a head noun. Again, ho w ev er, if it lls the same p

• sition

as an adv erb, it should b e tagged as a comparativ e adv erb (RBR).

SLIDE 29 4 PR OBLEMA TIC CASES 27 EXAMPLES: more/JJR

• f

m y friends gro ws to v e feet

• r

more/JJR It's more/JJR

• f

a v egetable garden. cf. *It's almost/RB

• f

a v egetable garden. But: It's more/RBR a v egetable garden. It's almost/RB a v egetable garden. most, should b e tagged as a sup erlativ e adjectiv e (JJS) ev en when it

• ccurs

without a head noun, as in m

• st
• f

the time. The reason is that its distribution is parallel to that

• f
• ther

sup erlativ e adjectiv es; cf. the follo wing: EXAMPLES: most apples; most

• f

the apples most

• f

the bunc h the rip est apples; the rip est

• f

the apples the rip est

• f

the bunc h In the collo cation m

• st

every-, m

• st

is a simple adv erb (RB). m uc h can b e an adjectiv e (JJ)

• r

an adv erb (RB). EXAMPLES: He do esn't ha v e m uc h/JJ energy left. She said nothing,

• r

at least not v ery m uc h/JJ. That's m uc h/RB b etter already . I lik e that quite w ell; in fact, I lik e it v ery m uc h/RB. near can b e an adjectiv e (JJ), an adv erb (RB)

• r

a prep

• sition

(IN). EXAMPLES: The near/JJ side

• f

the mo

• n

They had approac hed quite near/RB. W e w ere near/IN the station. But: W e w ere v ery/RB near/RB the station. In the collo cation n e ar(er) to, n e ar(er) is an adv erb (RB)

• r

comparativ e adv erb (RBR). The collo quial use

• f

n e ar er without a follo wing t

• should

also b e tagged as a comparativ e adv erb (RBR). EXAMPLES: W e w ere near/RB to the station. W e w ere nearer/RBR to the station. W e w ere nearer/RBR the station. next can b e an adjectiv e (JJ), an adv erb (RB)

• r

(in arc haic usage) a prep

• sition

(IN).

SLIDE 30 4 PR OBLEMA TIC CASES 28 EXAMPLE: The next/JJ train They liv e next/RB to/TO the park. I grasp the hands

• f

those next/IN me. no can b e a determiner (DT). EXAMPLE: W e ha v e no/DT solution to that dicult y as y et. It can also b e an adv erb (RB). EXAMPLE: She is no/RB longer her

• ld

self. Finally , as the

• pp
• site
• f

y es, it is an in terjection (UH). no

• ne

should b e tagged n

• /DT
• ne/NN

; in its h yphenated form n

• -one,

it should b e tagged NN. not is an adv erb (RB), as is its con tracted form n't.

• is

a particle (RP) in the collo cations w el l

• ,

b etter

• ,

b ad ly

• ,

worse

• .
• ne

In general,

• ne

should b e tagged as a cardinal n um b er (CD) ev en when its sense is not clearly that

• f

a n umeral. EXAMPLE:

• ne/CD
• f

the b est reasons Ho w ev er, when it is used as an imp ersonal third p erson pronoun, it is a pronoun (PRP). EXAMPLE: One/PRP do esn't do that kind

• f

thing in public. If it could b e pluralized

• r

mo died b y an adjectiv e in a particular con text, it is a common noun (NN). EXAMPLE: the

• nly

(go

• d)
• ne/NN
• f

its kind (cf. the

• nly

(go

• d)
• nes/NNS
• f

their kind) In the collo cation a nother

• ne,
• ne

is a common noun (NN).

• nly

should b e tagged as an adv erb (RB), unless it can b e paraphrased b y s

• le.

EXAMPLE: the

• nly/JJ

go

• d
• nes

(cf. the sole/*solely go

• d
• nes)
• nly/RB

the go

• d
• nes

(cf. solely/*sole the go

• d
• nes)
• ther

If

• ther

could b e pluralized in a particular con text, it is a common noun (NN).

SLIDE 31 4 PR OBLEMA TIC CASES 29 EXAMPLE: One

• f

them is go

• d,

but the

• ther/NN

is bad. (cf. the

• thers/NNS

are bad)

• urs,

as in T hat's

• urs,

is a PRP , not a PRP$.

• v

er in the collo cation I t's (al l)

• ver

is an adv erb (RB).

• wn

in com bination with p

• ssessiv

e pronouns is an adjectiv e (JJ). EXAMPLES: a ro

• m
• f
• ne's
• wn/JJ

her

• wn/JJ

ro

• m

p eople is a plural noun (NNS), since it triggers plural agreemen t. plen t y is a common noun (NN), ev en in collo cations lik e p lenty warm. public in the collo cation t

• go

public is an adjectiv e (JJ). rather in isolation is an adv erb (RB). EXAMPLE: T areyton smok ers w

• uld

rather/RB gh t than switc h. In the collo cation r ather than, ho w ev er, it should b e tagged as a sub

• rdinating

conjunction. EXAMPLE: But

• ften

it's wiser to switc h rather/IN than/IN to gh t. righ t The collo cation a l l right is tagged a l l/RB right/JJ. Section, as in S e ction 1, is an NN, not an NNP . see t F it is an adjectiv e (JJ) in the expression t

• se

e t. side should b e tagged as an adjectiv e (JJ) when used as a prenominal mo dier, as in s ide do

• r.

so in the sense

• f

\to suc h a degree" is an adv erb (RB). EXAMPLES: So/RB man y pieces are brok en that w e need a new

• ne.

He w as so/RB irresp

• nsible

w e red him. In the collo cations s

• as

to and s

• that

and when it means s

• that

b y itself, s

• is

a sub

• rdinating

conjunction (IN). EXAMPLES: He left the house quietly so/IN as/IN not to w ak e an y

• ne.

I left early so/IN that/IN I w

• uld

catc h m y train. I ga v e him money so/IN he could buy it.

SLIDE 32 4 PR OBLEMA TIC CASES 30 S

• in

the sense

• f

\therefore" is an adv erb (RB) rather than a sub

• rdinating

conjunction (IN). EXAMPLE: He w as unhapp y , so/RB he ask ed to b e transferred. so

• ner

If its meaning is not clearly comparativ e, s

• ner

should b e tagged as a simple adv erb (RB) rather than as a comparativ e adv erb (RBR). A useful diagnostic is that the comparativ e s

• ner

can b e preceded b y e ven. EXAMPLES: I'll get it around to it so

• ner/RB
• r

later. Let's h urry , so w e can arriv e (ev en) so

• ner/RBR

than y

• ur

mother. suc h Since an y noun phrase can con tain

• nly
• ne

determiner, the fact that it can

• ccur

together with a determiner (as in t he

• nly

such c ase) means that it should generally b e tagged as an adjectiv e (JJ). Ho w ev er, when it precedes a determiner, it should b e tagged as a predeterminer (PDT). T able, as in T able 1, is an NN, not an NNP . that when used to in tro duce relativ e clauses is a WDT, not an IN. theirs, as in T hat's theirs, is a PRP , not a PRP$. then can ha v e a strictly temp

• ral

sense (\at that p

• in

t in time")

• r

a more general sense (\in that case"). In either case, it is an adv erb (RB). Both uses can

• ccur

in the same sen tence. EXAMPLE: Then/RB I'll ha v e to do it b efore then/RB. T hen can also b e an adjectiv e (JJ). EXAMPLE: The then/JJ go v ernor

• f

Massac h usetts top should b e tagged as an adjectiv e (JJ) when used as a prenominal mo dier, as in t

• p

dr awer

• r

t

• p

notch. up should b e tagged as an adv erb (RB), not as a particle (RP), in con texts concerning the mo v emen t

• f

currency

• r

commo dit y prices. v ery , though usually an adv erb (RB), can b e an adjectiv e (JJ). EXAMPLE: the v ery/JJ idea vice, as in v ic e pr esident, should b e tagged as a common noun (NN) rather than as an adjectiv e (JJ). w ell is an adjectiv e (JJ) when it means the

• pp
• site
• f

s ick. It is an adv erb (RB)

• therwise.

SLIDE 33 5 GENERAL T A GGING CONVENTIONS 31 EXAMPLES: I'm quite w ell/JJ, thank y

• u.

Y

• u

did v ery w ell/RB

• n

the exam. I try to sp eak

• nly

w ell/RB

• f

p eople. when in a temp

• ral

sense is tagged WRB. In the sense

• f

\if,"

• n

the

• ther

hand, it is a sub

• rdinating

conjunction (IN). EXAMPLES: When/WRB he nally arriv ed, I w as

• n

m y w a y

• ut.

I lik e it when/IN y

• u

mak e dinner for me. w

• rth

is a prep

• sition

(IN) when it precedes a measure phrase, as in w

• rth

ten dol lars. y et can b e a co

• rdinating

conjunction (CC). EXAMPLE: It's exp ensiv e y et/CC w

• rth

it. It can also b e an adv erb (RB). EXAMPLES: I'v e found y et/RB another error. W e ha v e no solution to that dicult y as y et/RB. y

• urs,

as in T hat's yours, is a PRP , not a PRP$. 5 General tagging con v en tions 5.1 P art

• f

sp eec h and syn tactic function W e adopt the general con v en tion that parts

• f

sp eec h are dened

• n

the basis

• f

their syn tactic distribution rather than their seman tic function. This con v en tion has sev eral imp

• rtan

t consequences. One is that nouns in prenominal p

• sition

that are b eing used as mo diers are tagged as nouns (NN), not as adjectiv es (JJ) (see Section 4.1|JJ

• r

NN). EXAMPLES: a cotton/NN shirt the nearest b

• k/NN

store Another is that nouns that are used as adv erbial mo diers are tagged as nouns, not adv erbs (see Section 4.1|NN

• r

RB). EXAMPLE: This w eek, I w

• rk

mornings/NNS

• nly

. 5.2 V ertical slash con v en tion Linguistic

• r

extralinguistic con text generally resolv es the question

• f

what tag to assign to a tok en. EXAMPLES: Sampling/VBG data can b e time-consuming. Sampling/NN data can b e full

• f

errors. Nev ertheless, uncertain ties can arise. Rather than attempting to forcibly resolv e suc h uncertain ties, with the attendan t risk

• f

inconsistency , y

• u

should simply record them b y separating the relev an t tags b y a

SLIDE 34 5 GENERAL T A GGING CONVENTIONS 32 v ertical slash (this c haracter app ears as an in terrupted slash

• n

the k eyb

• ard).

F

• r

instance, in the absence

• f

disam biguating con text, examples suc h as the follo wing should b e tagged using the v ertical slash. EXAMPLES: Sampling/NNjVBG data can b e fun. The Duc hess w as en tertaining/JJjVBG last nigh t. The Duc hess w as guarded/JJjVBN last nigh t. 5.3 Capitalized w

• rds

If a series

• f

w

• rds

is capitalized as part

• f

a name, the capitalized w

• rds

should b e tagged as prop er nouns (NNP

• r

NNPS). EXAMPLES: Constitution/NNP Av en ue/NNP the/DT F ulton/NNP Coun t y/NNP Grand/NNP Jury/NNP Kansas/NNP Cit y/NNP Moun t/NNP Ev erest/NNP North/NNP Carolina/NNP Supreme/NNP Court/NNP Justice/NNP A/NNP T ale/NNP

• f/IN

Tw

• /NNP

Cities/NNPS the/DT United/NNP States/NNPS Otherwise, titles should b e tagged as if they w ere running text. If a single w

• rd

is capitalized b ecause it is used as a title, it should b e tagged as a prop er noun (NNP). But if a single w

• rd
• r

series

• f

w

• rds

is capitalized as a result

• f

gurativ e sp eec h, it should b e tagged as if it w eren't capitalized. EXAMPLES: Mother/NNP , are y

• u

coming? He w as no go

• d

at reb elling against So ciet y/NN. 5.4 Abbreviations Abbreviations and initials should b e tagged as if they w ere sp elled

• ut.

EXAMPLES: Mr./NNP John/NNP W arner/NNP Dr./NNP Elizab eth/NNP Blac kw ell/NNP Av e./NNP

• f/IN

the/DT Americas/NNPS e.g./FW