Natural Hazards Earthquakes Volcanoes Tsunamis Minimizing - - PDF document

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4th Grade

Natural Hazards

2015-11-18 www.njctl.org

Slide 3 / 142 Table of Contents

Click on the topic to go to that section

· Natural Hazards · Tsunamis · Earthquakes · Volcanoes · Works Cited · Minimizing Damage

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Natural Hazards

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Source: Wikimedia Commons. Author: Abassi.

What happened?

Look at the picture below. How many different ideas can you brainstorm about what may have destroyed this area?

Slide 6 / 142 What happened?

Source: Wikimedia Commons. Author: Abassi.

This is the result of an earthquake that hit Haiti in 2010. An earthquake is an example of a natural hazard. The next slides describe a different natural hazard that hit Alaska in the 1950s. Pay attention and see if you can come up with a definition for natural hazard.

Slide 7 / 142 Lituya Bay, Alaska

Source: Wikimedia Commons. Author: Nzeemin.

Lituya Bay is a fjord located on the coast of Alaska. It is 14.5 km long and 3.2 km wide. A fjord is a narrow, deep inlet that runs between high cliffs.

Slide 8 / 142 Lituya Bay, Alaska

Cenotaph Island C a s c a d e G l a c i e r Crillon Glacier L i t u y a G l a c i e r

Source: Chadron State College. Author: U.S. Geologic Survey.

Lituya Bay is part of the Glacier Bay National Park and Preserve.The Cascade Glacier, the Crillon Glacier and the Lituya Glacier all feed into Lituya Bay. Cenotaph Island is located in the middle of the bay.

Slide 9 / 142 1953 - Lituya Bay

Source: National Park Service

In 1953, scientists visiting Lituya Bay found evidence of immense destruction around the bay.

Click here to watch a video about the 1953 Lituya Bay event.

After watching the video, move to the next slide to answer questions.

Slide 10 / 142 1953 - Lituya Bay

What evidence of destruction did the scientists discover? What is a trim line? The place where trees of different ages meet. Mature trees did not extend all the way down to the water, as it did in neighboring areas. Much younger trees were located by the water. What information did the Juno Forestry Research Lab provide? The tree rings showed that a violent force struck the forest. Possibly a giant wave.

Questions continue on next slide.

Slide 11 / 142 1953 - Lituya Bay

Why was this information confusing for the scientists? The scientists were unable to make any sense of this information and they left the area puzzled. As a class, come up with a hypothesis about what happened. Write it below. In order for a wave to reach that high in the forest, it would have had to be 150 meters tall. A wave this high had never been recorded

• before. It seemed impossible.

Slide 12 / 142 1958 - Lituya Bay

Five years later, a similar event happened. This time, however, the event was documented and had a few witnesses.

Rockslide

Source: Chadron State College. Author: U.S. Geologic Survey.

An earthquake caused a rockslide. Over 30 million cubic meters of rock fell into the bay from a height of 914

• meters. The force of

the rocks hitting the water created a mega tsunami that travelled through the bay.

Click here to listen to an eye witness acount of the event.

Slide 13 / 142 1958 - Lituya Bay

This image shows the coastline of the bay. The lighter area is where the wave uprooted and destroyed all trees. The wave removed vegetation as high as 524 meters (1720 feet) above the

• waterline. It is the largest

wave ever recorded.

Source: Wikimedia Commons. Author: Miller.

Slide 14 / 142 Natural Hazards

What happened at Lituya Bay is an example of a natural hazard. A natural hazard is any extreme event that occurs from natural processes. Was there anything that could have been done to prevent the natural hazard in Lituya Bay in 1958? Write any ideas below.

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Natural hazards cannot be prevented. However, by analyzing natural hazards, we can attempt to minimize the damage that they cause.

Natural Hazards

Click here to watch a video of how scientists have analyzed the Lituya Bay mega tsunami.

What did scientists learn about the wavelengths of mega tsunamis compared to storm waves? The wavelengths of mega tsunamis are incredibly large. This enables them to create a massive wave as it approaches shore and to engulf the land, causing immense destruction.

Slide 16 / 142 Natural Hazards

Natural hazards from activity at plate boundaries include:

Source: Wikimedia Commons. Author: McGimsey. Source: Wikimedia Commons. Author: Tubbi. Source: Wikimedia Commons. Author: Harriv.

Volcanoes Earthquakes Tsunamis In this unit, we will examine natural hazards that are a result of plate tectonics. Think back to the first unit of the year. What are plate tectonics and plate boundaries? Tectonic plates are pieces of the Earth's crust. Where tectonic plates come together and interact is called a plate boundary.

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1 What initiated the destruction in Lituya Bay? A Hurricane B Rockslide C Earthquake D It is unknown.

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1 What initiated the destruction in Lituya Bay? A Hurricane B Rockslide C Earthquake D It is unknown.

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Answer

C

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2 A natural hazard is any extreme event caused from natural processes. True False

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2 A natural hazard is any extreme event caused from natural processes. True False

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Answer

True

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3 Natural hazards can be prevented. True False

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3 Natural hazards can be prevented. True False

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Answer

False Natural hazards CANNOT be prevented but damage from them can be minimized.

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Earthquakes

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Slide 21 / 142 Plate Tectonics

Remember that Earth's crust is composed of several different pieces that fit together like a puzzle.

Source: Wikimedia Commons. Author: U.S. Geological Survey.

The plates are constantly moving in relation to each other.

Slide 22 / 142 Faults

There are areas in the Earth's crust where two plates rub against each other. These are called faults. In how many different ways can you imagine that plates rub against each other? Write your ideas below.

Slide 23 / 142 Faults

Source: Wikimedia Commons. Author: U.S. Geological Survey.

Two rocks can move horizontally beside each other (strike-slip fault). A rock can be moved downwards (normal fault). A rock can be pushed upwards (thrust fault). There are a few different ways that rocks can move in relation to each other.

Click here to watch a strike-slip fault animation. Click here to watch a normal fault animation. Click here to watch a thrust fault animation.

Slide 24 / 142 Energy Review

Source: Wikimedia Commons. Author: Milan.

Think back to your unit on energy. Imagine that you compress this spring so that all the coils are touching each other. What will have more energy: the uncompressed spring or the compressed spring? What type of energy does the compressed spring have? If you suddenly let go of the spring, what type of energy does it have now?

Slide 24 (Answer) / 142 Energy Review

Source: Wikimedia Commons. Author: Milan.

Think back to your unit on energy. Imagine that you compress this spring so that all the coils are touching each other. What will have more energy: the uncompressed spring or the compressed spring? What type of energy does the compressed spring have? If you suddenly let go of the spring, what type of energy does it have now?

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Answer The compressed spring will have more energy. The compressed spring contains potential energy. When you release the spring, the potential energy changes into kinetic energy.

Slide 25 / 142 Plates Can Store Energy

Sometimes, the sides of plates are not completely smooth. They have bumps and irregularities that cause them to get stuck, or locked, in place when they should be moving past each other. Although the plates are no longer moving, the same amount of force is being applied to them. When plates stop moving, what type of energy is being stored at the fault? Potential energy

Source: Wikimedia Commons. Author: NASA Earth Observatory.

This picture shows a strike slip fault in the Taklamakan Desert in China.

Slide 26 / 142 Plates Can Release Energy

Eventually, there is so much force being applied to the plates that they become unstuck and quickly move past each other. The potential energy is suddenly released as what type of energy? Kinetic energy It is this sudden release of energy that is felt as an earthquake.

Source: Wikimedia Commons. Author: Xhienne.

This fault in France shows one side being pushed downwards while the other side moves upwards.

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4 Hold your hands together. Now, move them in a horizontal motion past one another. What type of fault are you simulating? A Strike-slip B Normal C Thrust

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4 Hold your hands together. Now, move them in a horizontal motion past one another. What type of fault are you simulating? A Strike-slip B Normal C Thrust

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Answer

A

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5 An earthquake is felt as plates gradually move past each

• ther.

True False

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5 An earthquake is felt as plates gradually move past each

• ther.

True False

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Answer

False It is normal for plates to slowly move past each other. An earthquake occurs when plates, that are stuck together, suddenly move past each

• ther, releasing large amounts
• f energy.

Slide 29 / 142 Hypocenter

hypocenter fault line The location within the Earth's crust where an earthquake originates is called the hypocenter. "hypo" means under

Slide 30 / 142 Epicenter

fault line hypocenter epicenter The location on the surface of the Earth directly above the hypocenter is called the epicenter. "epi" means above

Slide 31 / 142 Seismic Waves

Energy is released during an earthquake as seismic waves. There are two types of seismic waves: S-waves and P-waves. Think back to your unit on waves. What type of waves travel up and down? What type of waves travel back and forth?

Source: Wikimedia Commons. Author: National Archives.

This picture shows the aftermath of the 1906 San Francisco earthquake. Transverse waves Longitudinal waves

Slide 32 / 142 P-Waves

P-waves are longitudinal waves that travel out from the hypocenter. P-waves are pressure waves. This means they compress rock. P-waves travel quickly and are the first seismic waves to reach the epicenter (the location on Earth's surface above the hypocenter). These waves are felt as a sudden jolt.

Source: Wikimedia Commons. Author: Chan.

Hint: Think "P" for pressure or primary.

Slide 33 / 142 S-Waves

S-waves are transverse waves that travel from the hypocenter of an

• earthquake. S-waves travel slowly through rock and are the second

type of seismic wave to arrive at the epicenter. S-waves shear (distort) rock.

Source: Wikimedia Commons. Author: Chan.

Hint: Think "S" for shear or secondary. S-waves are felt as a prolonged side-to-side shaking.

Click here to watch an earthquake animation that shows P-waves and S-waves.

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6 P-waves are longitudinal. True False

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6 P-waves are longitudinal. True False

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Answer

True

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7 As you are sitting in science class one day, there is a sudden jerking of the ground beneath your. Afterwards, the ground continues to shake back and forth for 30 more

• seconds. What type of wave caused the second round of

shaking? A P-waves B S-waves

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7 As you are sitting in science class one day, there is a sudden jerking of the ground beneath your. Afterwards, the ground continues to shake back and forth for 30 more

• seconds. What type of wave caused the second round of

shaking? A P-waves B S-waves

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Answer

B

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8 The location within the Earth where an earthquake

• riginates is called the ___.

A epicenter B hypocenter

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8 The location within the Earth where an earthquake

• riginates is called the ___.

A epicenter B hypocenter

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Answer

B

Slide 37 / 142 Earthquakes as Natural Hazards

Earthquakes are one of the most destructive natural hazards. Other than causing widespread destruction of buildings and structures, can you think of any other dangers? Write your ideas below.

Slide 38 / 142 Earthquake Dangers

If earthquakes cause dams or levees to break, they can cause flooding. As earthquakes cause destruction, widespread fires can occur. Sometimes earthquakes loosen rock or packed snow. This can cause a landslide or

• avalanche. The picture to the left shows a

landslide that resulted from a 2001 El Salvador earthquake.

Source: Wikimedia Commons. Author: U.S. Geological Survey.

Slide 39 / 142 Earthquakes as Natural Hazards

Earthquakes are an example of a natural hazard. Can earthquakes be prevented? Earthquakes, as well as all other natural hazards, cannot be prevented. By studying them, however, scientists are learning how to minimize damage created by them. Click to the next slides to find out how scientists do this!

Slide 40 / 142 Seismologist

A seismologist is a scientist who studies earthquakes. They learn more information about an earthquake by studying the seismic waves created during an earthquake. Seismographs are instruments used to collect data on seismic waves.

Source: Wikipedia. Author: Yamaguchi.

Slide 41 / 142 Seismographs

While there are many different types of seismographs, the basic function remains the same.

Source: U.S. Geological Survey

Seismographs are placed firmly on the ground. A heavy weight hangs from a spring. When an earthquake occurs, the ground moves along with the base of the seismograph. The spring at the top will absorb all of the energy from the movement, allowing the weight to remain

• motionless. A pen at the bottom of the weight

records the amount of movement on a piece of paper.

Slide 42 / 142 Seismographs

The spring attached at the top of the seismograph is very important! Watch the video by clicking the link below and then answer the question.

Click here to watch an animation of how a seismograph works.

Source: U.S. Geological Survey

What is the purpose of the spring? Would the seismograph work without the spring?

Slide 42 (Answer) / 142 Seismographs

The spring attached at the top of the seismograph is very important! Watch the video by clicking the link below and then answer the question.

Click here to watch an animation of how a seismograph works.

Source: U.S. Geological Survey

What is the purpose of the spring? Would the seismograph work without the spring?

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Answer The spring absorbs the motion of the earthquake and allows the weight to remain motionless. As the rest of the structure moves and the weight remains still, it can record the movement from the earthquake.

Slide 43 / 142 Seismograms

Look at the example of the seismogram below. Can you create a hypothesis about which section shows P-waves and which section shows S-waves? Click on the picture to see the answers. P-waves S-waves

Source: U.S. Geological Survey

Slide 43 (Answer) / 142 Seismograms

Look at the example of the seismogram below. Can you create a hypothesis about which section shows P-waves and which section shows S-waves? Click on the picture to see the answers. P-waves S-waves

Source: U.S. Geological Survey

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Answer Remember: P-waves arrive first with S-waves coming second and creating the most damage.

Slide 44 / 142 The Richter Scale

Based on information from seismographs, earthquakes are assigned a rating on the Richter scale. This scale determines the magnitude of energy released during an earthquake. The higher the magnitude, the more destruction caused.

Source: Wikimedia Commons. Author: Abassi.

The earthquake that hit Haiti in 2010 was a magnitude of 7.0.

Slide 45 / 142 The Richter Scale

Magnitude Type Effects 1 Micro Only recorded by seismographs. Not felt by people 2 Minor Few people can feel. No damage. 3 Minor Some people can feel. Some inside objects can shake. 4 Light Most people can feel. Inside objects will shake or fall to the floor. 5 Moderate Everyone can feel. Can damage or destroy weak buildings. 6 Strong Damages buildings. Can reach up to 100 miles from the epicenter. 7 Major Widespread damage. 8 Great Widespread damage that can spread beyond 100 miles from the epicenter. 9 Great Severe damage that can spread beyond 1,000 miles from the epicenter. 10 Massive Never recorded.

Slide 46 / 142 Can earthquakes be predicted?

Earthquakes result from sudden movement of rock far beneath the Earth's surface. These types of movement are not able to be predicted. Right now, scientists/engineers are focused on building designs that will withstand earthquake activity.

Source: Wikimedia Commons. Author: Shustov.

These springs were installed under a 3 story townhouse. As the springs compress, they absorb the energy from an earthquake.

Click here to watch a video about earthquakes.

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9 Earthquakes can cause: (choose all that apply) A Flooding B Fires C Tornadoes D Landslides E Avalanches

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9 Earthquakes can cause: (choose all that apply) A Flooding B Fires C Tornadoes D Landslides E Avalanches

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Answer

A, B, D, E

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10 A seismograph works because the base remains still while the weight swings with the movement of the earthquake. True False

Source: U.S. Geological Survey

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10 A seismograph works because the base remains still while the weight swings with the movement of the earthquake. True False

Source: U.S. Geological Survey

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Answer

False The weight remains still and records movement from the base, which moves with the earthquake.

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11 Which rating on the Richter scale would produce the most destructive earthquake? A 1.2 B 5.3 C 6.8 D 8.4

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11 Which rating on the Richter scale would produce the most destructive earthquake? A 1.2 B 5.3 C 6.8 D 8.4

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Answer

D

Slide 50 / 142 Design Challenge Seismograph

Source: U.S. Geological Survey

There are many different types of seismographs, but they all work by the same basic principles. Build your own seismograph in this activity.

Slide 51 / 142

Volcanoes

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Slide 52 / 142 Did You Know?

We all know what a typical volcano looks like. But...do you know: · How many volcanoes are erupting as you read this sentence? · What area of Earth produces the most amount of magma? approximately 20 Submarine volcanoes - located at the bottom of the ocean · What temperature is lava? Lava can reach 1,250 degrees C (2,000 degrees F)!

Click here to watch a video about volcanoes.

Slide 53 / 142 Volcano Categories

Volcanoes can be categorized as active, dormant or extinct. Read the descriptions below and come up with definitions for each type of volcano.

Source: Wikipedia. Author: Zylstra. Source: Wikimedia Commons. Author: Snodgrass. Source: Wikipedia. Author: Reed.

Mount Yasu in Vanuatu is an active volcano that has been continuously erupting for the past 800 years. Fourpeaked Mountain in Alaska is a dormant

• volcano. It erupted in

2006 after 10,000 years

• f no activity. No activity

has been seen since the 2006 eruption. Shiprock is an extinct volcano that is now a rock formation in the Navajo Nation in New Mexico.

Slide 54 / 142 Volcano Categories

· Active volcanoes are those that are currently erupting or are likely to erupt. · Dormant volcanoes are those that are not currently erupting but have the potential to do so in the future. · Extinct volcanoes are those that cannot erupt again because they no longer have a magma source.

Click here to view a map of currently active volcanoes.

Source: Wikimedia Commons. Author: Harlow.

During the eruption of Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines in 1991, ash rose 19 km (12 miles) into the sky.

Slide 55 / 142 Review: Plate Tectonics

Look at the plate boundaries in this image. Where do you see volcanoes in this picture?

Source: Wikipedia. Author: Vigil.

Slide 56 / 142 Volcano Formation

Volcanoes can form in a few different ways: · at convergent plate boundaries · at mid-ocean ridges · at hotspots

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volcano#/media/File:Green_Izalco_Volcano.JPG

Izalco is a volcano in El Salvador that erupted continuously from 1770-1958!

Slide 57 / 142 Convergent Boundaries

At convergent plate boundaries, one plate will move, or "subduct", beneath the other plate. The subducting plate is exposed to high pressure and temperature which causes it to melt into liquid rock, or

• magma. In some cases, the magma rises and explodes out of the

surface of the crust. This is a volcano. When magma reaches the surface, it is called lava.

Source: Wikimedia Commons. Author: Fredrik.

Slide 58 / 142 Mid-Ocean Ridges

Mid-ocean ridges are located at divergent boundaries in the oceans. As plates move apart, magma rises to the surface. As the lava hardens, it creates new oceanic crust.

Source: Wikipedia. Author: Simmon.

Slide 59 / 142 Hotspots

Source: Wikipedia. Author: National Geophysical Data Center.

Hotspots are areas, not located by plate boundaries, where magma breaks through the crust. The Hawaiian hotspot in the Pacific is responsible for creating a chain of islands and underwater seamounts that is 5,800 km (3,600 miles) long.

Slide 60 / 142 Hotspots

As magma rises to the surface at a hotspot, a volcano can create an island. But...how can a hotspot create a line of islands? (Hint: Think about plate tectonics.) Write your ideas below.

Slide 61 / 142 Hotspots

Source: Wikimedia Commons. Author: Los688.

The Earth's crust is constantly moving. Hotspots form in random places within plates, not at plate boundaries. Volcanoes form over the hotspots. As the crust continues to move, the hotspot stays in the same location. The volcano moves away from the hotspot and becomes an island. Meanwhile, a new volcano forms over the hotspot.

Slide 62 / 142 Demo: Hotspots

In this activity, simulate a hotspot that creates a chain of islands. How does distance from the hotspot relate to the age of the island?

Source: Wikipedia. Author: NOAA.

The Hawaiian-Emperor Seamount Chain

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Source: Wikimedia Commons. Author: Descloitres.

Case Study: Hawaiian Islands

Below is a color satellite image of the Hawaiian Islands. If the Hawaiian hotspot is located under the largest island with the Pacific Plate moving in the direction of the arrow, which island is the oldest? (Click to the next slide for the answer.)

Slide 64 / 142 Case Study: Hawaiian Islands

Source: Wikimedia Commons. Author: Robinson.

The volcano that is directly over the hotspot is currently being

• formed. This is the youngest volcano. As the plate moves away

from the hotspot, the volcanoes become older and older. Therefore, the volcano farthest away from the hotspot is the oldest volcano.

Slide 65 / 142 Case Study: Hawaiian Islands

Source: Wikimedia Commons. Author: Descloitres.

Look at the picture of the Hawaiian Islands again. What do you notice about the size of the islands in relation to the age of the islands? Can you come up with a hypothesis that explains this pattern? (Hint: Think about your unit on Earth's Systems.)

Slide 66 / 142 Case Study: Hawaiian Islands

Volcanoes get smaller as they move away from a hotspot. As the volcanoes get older, wind and water act as weathering

• agents. Erosion occurs and the volcanoes become smaller and

smaller until they are no longer islands but underwater seamounts.

Source: Wikimedia Commons. Author: Robinson.

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12 Volcanoes always form at plate boundaries. True False

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12 Volcanoes always form at plate boundaries. True False

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Answer

False

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13 A volcano that no longer has a magma source would be called ___. A active B extinct C dormant D sea mount

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13 A volcano that no longer has a magma source would be called ___. A active B extinct C dormant D sea mount

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Answer

B

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14 Can a dormant volcano erupt? Yes No

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14 Can a dormant volcano erupt? Yes No

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Answer

Yes

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15 The Ring of Fire is an area in the Pacific Ocean that experiences many earthquakes and volcanoes. This

• ccurs as the tectonic plates in this area collide with each
• ther. What type of activity is creating volcanoes in the

Ring of Fire? A divergence B mid-ocean ridges C subduction D hotspots

Source: Wikimedia Commons. Author: Gringer.

Slide 70 (Answer) / 142

15 The Ring of Fire is an area in the Pacific Ocean that experiences many earthquakes and volcanoes. This

• ccurs as the tectonic plates in this area collide with each
• ther. What type of activity is creating volcanoes in the

Ring of Fire? A divergence B mid-ocean ridges C subduction D hotspots

Source: Wikimedia Commons. Author: Gringer.

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Answer

C

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16 The picture shows a chain of islands formed from the Bowie hotspot in the Gulf of Alaska. Based on the ages of the volcanoes, which one is located closest to the hotspot? A Pratt B Welker C Denson D Dickens

Source: NOAA

Slide 71 (Answer) / 142

16 The picture shows a chain of islands formed from the Bowie hotspot in the Gulf of Alaska. Based on the ages of the volcanoes, which one is located closest to the hotspot? A Pratt B Welker C Denson D Dickens

Source: NOAA

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Answer

D

Slide 72 / 142 Volcanoes as Natural Hazards

There are many different reasons that volcanoes are a type of natural hazard. Why are volcanoes dangerous? Write your thoughts below.

Slide 73 / 142 Volcano Dangers

Lava flows are very heavy and have incredibly high temperatures. Although they move very slowly, they can destroy buildings, roads and trees. Poisonous gases are released during eruptions. Some of these gases are poisonous and can kill

• rganisms. Other gases cause

harm when they create acid rain.

Source: Wikimedia Commons. Author: Hawaii Volcano Observatory. Source: Wikimedia Commons. Author: Klett.

Kanaga Volcano, Alaska Kilauea, Hawaii

Slide 74 / 142 Volcano Dangers

Volcanic ash and rock is thrown into the air during an eruption. They have been known to travel 45 km into the air! Volcanic rocks can be several meters across and can kill

• rganisms and crush buildings or trees. Volcanic ash includes

pieces of rock, minerals and volcanic glass. It is very heavy. Just a few cm of ash can cause a building to collapse!

Source: Wikimedia Commons. Author: Johnson Space Center.

The picture of this ash cloud from Mount Clevelend in Alaska was taken from outer space.

Slide 75 / 142 Volcano Dangers

The most dangerous aspect of volcanoes is a pyroclastic flow. A pyroclastic flow is a current of rock and gas that flows down the sides of a volcano and into the surrounding areas. They are dangerous because of their speed and temperature. Pyroclastic flows can move up to 700 km/hr (450 miles/hour) and can reach temperatures of up to 1,000 C.

• Source: Wikimedia Commons. Author: Newhall.

Can you see the pyroclastic flows travelling down the Mayon Volcano in the Philippines?

Slide 76 / 142 The Lost City of Pompeii

In 79 A.D., Mount Vesuvius in modern day Italy erupted and buried the city of Pompeii in pyroclastic flows. The entire city was destroyed, including all of the inhabitants. Preserved under large amounts of ash and debris, the city was only discovered in

• 1599. It has now been fully excavated and

serves as a glimpse into the Roman Empire. This picture shows the preserved remains

• f some of the humans who were killed by

the pyroclastic flows.

Source: Wikipedia. Author: Lancevortex.

Click here to watch a video about the Lost City of Pompeii.

Slide 77 / 142 Volcanoes as Natural Hazards

Volcanoes are an example of a natural hazard. Can volcanoes be prevented? Volcanoes, as well as all other natural hazards, cannot be

• prevented. By studying them, however, scientists are

learning how to predict volcanic eruptions and thereby minimize damage created by them. Click to the next slides to find out how volcanists do this!

Slide 78 / 142 Volcanology

Volcanology is the study of volcanoes. Part of volcanology includes researching different ways to predict volcanic eruptions. As of now, volcanologists analyze three different types of data to predict volcanoes: · seismic monitoring · gas monitoring · ground deformation monitoring

Source: Wikimedia Commons. Author: Hawaii Volcano Observatory.

This volcanologist wears protective clothing while collecting a lava sample.

Slide 79 / 142 Seismic Monitoring

Before a volcanic eruption can occur, magma has to move upwards through the Earth's crust. As magma forces its way through narrow passages, the surrounding rocks break or vibrate. This causes small earthquakes.

Source: U.S. Geological Survey

A network of seismometers are set up around a volcano's vent. By continually gathering seismic information from a volcano, volcanologists are able to determine when small earthquakes occur, indicating a possible volcano.

Slide 80 / 142 Seismic Monitoring

Source: U.S. Geological Survey

These are examples of seismic signatures from seismometers located around Mount Rainier in Washington. Which one would indicate a possible volcanic eruption?

Slide 80 (Answer) / 142 Seismic Monitoring

Source: U.S. Geological Survey

These are examples of seismic signatures from seismometers located around Mount Rainier in Washington. Which one would indicate a possible volcanic eruption?

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Answer

The tectonic earthquake beneath Mount Ranier would indicate that magma is being pushed towards the surface.

Slide 81 / 142 Seismic Success Story

In 2000, scientists used seismic activity to predict the eruption of Popocatepetl, a volcano on the outskirts of Mexico City. Thousands

• f people were evacuated from the area. Two days later, the volcano
• erupted. It was the volcano's largest eruption in over a thousand

years but there were no casualties.

Source: Wikimedia Commons. Author: AlejandroLinaresGarcia.

Slide 82 / 142

Source: Wikimedia Commons. Author: SMC.

Gas Monitoring

What happens if you shake a bottle of soda right before you open it? This same idea applies to volcanic eruptions. As magma reaches the surface, gases escape out of the top of the volcano.

Slide 83 / 142 Gas Monitoring

Water vapor, carbon dioxide and sulphur dioxide are all gases that are released from a volcano's vent prior to eruption. Volcanologists monitor changes in these gases to help them predict when a volcano may erupt.

Source: U.S. Geological Survey

This volcanologist is sampling gas concentrations at a volcano's vent.

Slide 84 / 142 Ground Deformation Monitoring

Volcanologists use satellite images and other tools to observe changes in the Earth's surface. Since the ground will bulge and change as magma rises to the surface, having accurate data about changes to the surface of a volcano is important for predicting volcanic activity. This instrument is a tiltmeter. It is installed

• n the slope of a volcano and records

changes to the angle of the volcano. As magma pushes its way to the top, the sides of a volcano may become steeper. These changes can be measured by the tiltmeter.

Source: Wikimedia Commons. Author: U.S. Geological Survey.

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17 Volcanoes are unable to be predicted. True False

Slide 85 (Answer) / 142

17 Volcanoes are unable to be predicted. True False

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Answer

False Although volcanic prediction is not perfect, volcanologists use several tools to predict volcanic activity.

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18 Volcanologists monitor seismic activity around a volcano because: A earthquakes decrease right before an eruption. B earthquakes increase right before an eruption.

Slide 86 (Answer) / 142

18 Volcanologists monitor seismic activity around a volcano because: A earthquakes decrease right before an eruption. B earthquakes increase right before an eruption.

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Answer

B

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19 On the Hawaiian volcanoes, magma pushes upwards and makes the volcano swell outwards right before an

• eruption. What would be a good method to predict

volcanic activity here? A Seismic monitoring B Gas monitoring C Ground deformation monitoring

Slide 87 (Answer) / 142

19 On the Hawaiian volcanoes, magma pushes upwards and makes the volcano swell outwards right before an

• eruption. What would be a good method to predict

volcanic activity here? A Seismic monitoring B Gas monitoring C Ground deformation monitoring

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Answer

C

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20 While monitoring Sakurajima volcano in Japan, you notice that the concentration of sulphur dioxide suddenly

• increases. What does this indicate?

A Earthquakes have released sulphur from the surrounding rocks. B Water has mixed with the magma, creating sulphur dioxide. C Gas is escaping as magma pushes its way to the surface. D Gas is escaping because the volcano has just erupted.

Slide 88 (Answer) / 142

20 While monitoring Sakurajima volcano in Japan, you notice that the concentration of sulphur dioxide suddenly

• increases. What does this indicate?

A Earthquakes have released sulphur from the surrounding rocks. B Water has mixed with the magma, creating sulphur dioxide. C Gas is escaping as magma pushes its way to the surface. D Gas is escaping because the volcano has just erupted.

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Answer

C

Slide 89 / 142 Case Study: Submarine Volcanoes

Volcanoes can form at any location on the Earth's crust where magma pushes its way to the surface. This includes locations where humans are not present, such as on the ocean floor. Approximately 80% of all volcanic activity occurs on the sea floor. Volcanoes that occur underwater are called submarine volcanoes.

Source: Wikimedia Commons. Author: NOAA.

This is magma from the West Mata submarine volcano.

Slide 90 / 142 Case Study: Submarine Volcanoes

Submarine volcanoes exist in a different set of conditions than land

• volcanoes. The lava formed by these volcanoes, therefore, is different.

Make a list of ideas about how submarine volcano lava may be different.

Slide 91 / 142 Case Study: Submarine Volcanoes

Submarine volcanoes are surrounded by cold water while land volcanoes are surrounded by air. Water conducts heat twenty times as well as air does. This means that water will cool lava much faster than air.

Source: Wikimedia Commons. Author: National Undersea Research Program.

Lava from submarine volcanoes encounters cold water and instantly cools to form a crust on the outside. Lava continues to flow into this crust, creating forms called pillow lava.

Slide 92 / 142 Case Study: Submarine Volcanoes

Some magma cools so quickly when it meets

• ceanic water that it turns into volcanic glass.

Source: Wikimedia Commons. Author: Ji-Elle. Source: NOAA.

Although submarine volcanoes are the most abundant type of volcano

• n Earth, not much is known about
• them. Scientists are working hard to

build remotely operated underwater vehicles (ROVs)that can gather data about the volcanoes.

Click here to watch an eruption of the West Mata Volcano. The video was recorded by a NOAA ROV.

Slide 93 / 142

Tsunamis

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Slide 94 / 142 Sumatra-Andaman Earthquake

In the Indian Ocean, the Indian plate subducts under the Burma plate. On December 26, 2004, action at this subduction zone created a thrust

• earthquake. At a magnitude of 9.3, it was the 3rd largest earthquake

ever recorded. What does it mean to say it was a "thrust" earthquake?

Source: Wikimedia Commons. Author: Cantus.

The bullseye shows the epicenter of the earthquake.

Slide 94 (Answer) / 142 Sumatra-Andaman Earthquake

In the Indian Ocean, the Indian plate subducts under the Burma plate. On December 26, 2004, action at this subduction zone created a thrust

• earthquake. At a magnitude of 9.3, it was the 3rd largest earthquake

ever recorded. What does it mean to say it was a "thrust" earthquake?

Source: Wikimedia Commons. Author: Cantus.

The bullseye shows the epicenter of the earthquake.

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Answer At a thrust fault, one plate is pushed upwards.

Slide 95 / 142 Indian Ocean Tsunami

As one plate was violently pushed upwards, it pushed the water on top of it upwards as well. This created an enormous wave that caused widespread destruction around the Indian Ocean. This was a tsunami.

Source: Wikimedia Commons. Author: NOAA.

This map shows how the tsunami travelled outwards from the epicenter

• f the earthquake.

Slide 96 / 142 Indian Ocean Tsunami

The tsunami travelled across the Indian Ocean at speeds of up to 804 km/hour (500 miles/hour). The tsunami took everyone by surprise.

Source: Wikimedia Commons. Author: Vasquez.

The wave was 30 meters (100 ft) high when it hit Indonesia. Three times higher than this illustration!

Slide 97 / 142 Indian Ocean Tsunami

Source: Wikimedia Commons. Author: NOAA.

This map shows how the tsunami travelled across the Indian

• Ocean. The numbers indicate how many hours had passed from

the initial earthquake until the tsunami passed that point. Indonesia, Sri Lanka and India were hit the hardest. They were closest to the epicenter which means the tsunami was the largest when it hit land and they had the least amount of warning (if any warning at all).

Slide 98 / 142

Affecting countries all around the Indian Ocean, the tsunami was the deadliest in history, killing approximately 300,000 people.

Indian Ocean Tsunami

Source: U.S. Navy. Author: McDaniel

Slide 99 / 142 Tsunamis

Tsunamis are a set of ocean waves generated by a disturbance in the ocean. Most tsunamis are caused by earthquakes at subduction zones in the ocean. As one plate subducts under another, it can become

• stuck. The overriding plate becomes distorted as the plates continue

to push against each other.

Source: U.S. Geological Survey. Author: Atwater et al.

Slide 100 / 142

Source: U.S. Geological Survey. Author: Atwater et al.

Click here to watch a tsunami animation. Click here to watch a video about the connection between tsunamis and earthquakes.

Tsunamis

Eventually, the overriding plate breaks free and releases the stored energy as an earthquake. The energy is transferred to the water above, producing a wave that radiates outwards. Tsunamis can also form from underwater landslides and volcanoes.

Slide 101 / 142 Tsunamis

Source: Wikimedia Commons. Author: Lachaume.

Out at sea, tsunamis may only be a few inches high. As the wave approaches land, it reaches shallower water. In shallow water, the wave slows down and its amplitude increases. By the time the tsunami reaches the shore, it may be incredibly tall, as witnessed in the Indian Ocean tsunami in 2004.

Slide 102 / 142

21 Tsunamis can be generated by which of the following? A Earthquakes B Landslides C Volcanoes D All of the above

Slide 102 (Answer) / 142

21 Tsunamis can be generated by which of the following? A Earthquakes B Landslides C Volcanoes D All of the above

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Answer

D

Slide 103 / 142

22 As waves approach the shore, they speed up and get taller. True False

Slide 103 (Answer) / 142

22 As waves approach the shore, they speed up and get taller. True False

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Answer

False As waves approach the shore, they slow down and get taller.

Slide 104 / 142 Lab: How does water depth affect tsunami speed?

Tsunamis are known to travel up to 500 miles per hour. How does speed vary based on changes in water depth? Follow directions carefully to determine how tsunamis change as they approach land.

Source: Wikimedia Commons. Author: Krapf.

Slide 105 / 142 Tsunamis as Natural Hazards

Tsunamis can cause extreme destruction and death. Can tsunamis be prevented?

Source: Wikimedia Commons. Author: AusAID.

Tsunamis cannot be prevented, but by studying them, scientists can learn how to predict them and can create a warning system to save lives. This photo shows the tsunami aftermath in Aceh, Indonesia.

Slide 106 / 142

Source: NOAA.

Tsunamis Prediction

Tsunami prediction technology has come a long way since the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami. NOAA has a network of DART buoys throughout the oceans. The DART sysytem consists of a tsunami bottom pressure recording (BPR) device that detects seismic activity, a floating buoy that detects changes in sea surface and satellites that receive information.

Slide 107 / 142 DART System

The BPR detects seismic activity and transmits this information to the buoy. The buoy transmits this information to a satellite. Tsunami Warning Centers receive information from the satellite. After analyzing the information, they process tsunami warnings to affected areas. Other buoys detect changes in sea surface height and transmit this information to a satellite.

Click here to conduct a DART system animation Then click on "Trigger Mode" and "Request Mode".

Slide 108 / 142

Source: NOAA.

DART System

This is a map of the DART buoys that are in place around the world. Click on the map to go to the National Data Buoy Center website. Here, you can click on individual buoys and see their data. Why do all the buoys have cyclical rises and falls?

Slide 108 (Answer) / 142

Source: NOAA.

DART System

This is a map of the DART buoys that are in place around the world. Click on the map to go to the National Data Buoy Center website. Here, you can click on individual buoys and see their data. Why do all the buoys have cyclical rises and falls?

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Answer Ocean water rises and falls in a predictable manner as a result of the tides. If a buoy collects data that is outside of the normal rise and fall, this information will be analyzed to determine tsunami risk.

Slide 109 / 142 Tsunami Awareness

Although the DART system has enhanced tsunami prediction, there may not always be enough time for an official warning. It is important for everyone to know the signs of a tsunami.

Click here to watch a tsunami awareness video.

Source: Wikimdia Commons. Author: Zandcee.

Slide 110 / 142

23 In the DART system, what does the BPR detect? A wave height B satellite location C seismic activity D water temperature

Slide 110 (Answer) / 142

23 In the DART system, what does the BPR detect? A wave height B satellite location C seismic activity D water temperature

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Answer

C

Slide 111 / 142

24 DART buoys can detect small changes in sea surface height. True False

Slide 111 (Answer) / 142

24 DART buoys can detect small changes in sea surface height. True False

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Answer

True

Slide 112 / 142

25 Which of the following is a sign of an approaching tsunami? (Select all that apply.) A The ocean suddenly recedes. B There is a loud roar from the ocean. C There is an earthquake. D The ocean suddenly rises.

Slide 112 (Answer) / 142

25 Which of the following is a sign of an approaching tsunami? (Select all that apply.) A The ocean suddenly recedes. B There is a loud roar from the ocean. C There is an earthquake. D The ocean suddenly rises.

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Answer

A, B, C and D

Slide 113 / 142

Minimizing Damage

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Slide 114 / 142 Minimizing Damage

We have now learned that natural hazards cannot be prevented. However, by studying the processes involved in each natural hazard, scientists are able to learn how to predict some of them and to minimize the damage caused by all of them. In order to learn more, scientists have to continually experiment and use the scientific method. What types of science skills do you think are necessary, as part of this process? Observation Forming hypotheses Collecting data Designing an experiment Analyzing results Creating new experiments to get better results

Slide 115 / 142 Case Study: Tsunamis

Suppose that a group of scientists is working on developing methods to minimize tsunami damage. Think back to the section on tsunamis. What dangers do tsunamis present? Write your ideas below.

Slide 116 / 142 Case Study: Tsunamis

Why would it be advantageous to develop a building design that can resist destruction by tsunamis?

Source: International Tsunami Information Center.

Slide 116 (Answer) / 142 Case Study: Tsunamis

Why would it be advantageous to develop a building design that can resist destruction by tsunamis?

Source: International Tsunami Information Center.

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Answer If buildings can withstand a tsunami, people would be able to climb to the top of tall buildings and survive the tsunami. Also, it would decrease the amount of money/ effort needed to restore areas hit by tsunamis.

Slide 117 / 142 Case Study: Tsunamis

Based on all the information you have learned about tsunamis, what ideas do you have on how to design a tsunami resistant building?

Slide 118 / 142 Case Study: Tsunamis

In 1820, a piece of Camano Island in northern Washington fell into the

• sea. This landslide caused a tsunami that hit nearby Hat Island,

drowning many of the locals. Recently, this house was built on Camano Island that can withstand waves, 85 mph winds and up to a 7.8 earthquake. It is called the Tsunami House.

Source: Smithsonian Institution. Author: Henning.

Slide 119 / 142 Case Study: Tsunamis

The house is composed of a steel frame and sturdy support

• columns. The house is elevated, with the living space located nine

feet above the ground. The lower level is surrounded by glass doors that are similar to garage doors. In the event of a tsunami, the wave will easily break the glass and pass through the house. By providing a pathway for the water, it removes the force of the wave, allowing the house to remain standing.

Source: Smithsonian Institution. Author: Henning.

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26 Building tsunami resistant buildings can save human lives. True False

Slide 120 (Answer) / 142

26 Building tsunami resistant buildings can save human lives. True False

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Answer

True

Slide 121 / 142

27 How does the Tsunami House resist tsunami damage? A A solid concrete foundation absorbs all of the tsunami momentum. B When a tsunami hits, the glass doors break away to allow the force of water to flow through the house. C The glass windows are reinforced to resist breakage from a tsunami. D All of the materials in the house are waterproof.

Slide 121 (Answer) / 142

27 How does the Tsunami House resist tsunami damage? A A solid concrete foundation absorbs all of the tsunami momentum. B When a tsunami hits, the glass doors break away to allow the force of water to flow through the house. C The glass windows are reinforced to resist breakage from a tsunami. D All of the materials in the house are waterproof.

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Answer

B

Slide 122 / 142 Minimizing Earthquake Damage

"Earthquakes do not kill people. Buildings kill people." Based on your knowledge of earthquakes, can you explain this quotation?

Source: Wikimedia Commons. Author: Punya.

This building in Bhaktapur, Nepal, was destroyed in an earthquake.

Slide 122 (Answer) / 142 Minimizing Earthquake Damage

"Earthquakes do not kill people. Buildings kill people." Based on your knowledge of earthquakes, can you explain this quotation?

Source: Wikimedia Commons. Author: Punya.

This building in Bhaktapur, Nepal, was destroyed in an earthquake.

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Answer Most of the deaths from an earthquake are not from the earthquake itself. Most people die when buildings collapse and crush them.

Slide 123 / 142 Minimizing Earthquake Damage

The best way to minimize earthquake damage (and deaths) is to design buildings that can withstand seismic movement. The process of designing earthquake resistant buildings requires a lot

• f trial and error. Not to mention experimentation! But...how can

scientists test a design to see if it is successful at surviving earthquakes? Write your ideas below and then click on the link to watch a video of an actual design test.

Click here to watch a video of an building design being tested for earthquake resistance.

Slide 124 / 142 Shake Table

Engineers create designs based on scientific information. They test those designs on a shake table. A shake table is an isolated area that is able to move in a way that simulates an earthquake. Engineers analyze their results and continually make changes to make buildings more resistant to earthquakes.

Source: University of California, San Diego.

Slide 124 (Answer) / 142 Shake Table

Engineers create designs based on scientific information. They test those designs on a shake table. A shake table is an isolated area that is able to move in a way that simulates an earthquake. Engineers analyze their results and continually make changes to make buildings more resistant to earthquakes.

Source: University of California, San Diego.

Teacher Notes

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Construct a shake table from the following RAFT activity: http://www.raftbayarea.org/ideas/ Shake%20Table.pdf Show the students how the shake table works. It will be used in the next two activities.

Slide 125 / 142 Lab: Shake It Up!

Which buildings will survive better in an earthquake: · tall buildings or short buildings · rectangular buildings or pyramidal buildings

Source: Wikimedia Commons. Author: Danjahner.

The San Francisco Skyline

Slide 126 / 142 Earthquake Engineering

Earthquake engineering is the field that works to protect society and the environment from seismic activity. Earthquake engineers use several different methods to design earthquake resistant buildings. The Transamerica Pyramid building in San Francisco has a pyramic shape that is favored by engineers because this shape allows a building to be tall but also have stability during earthquakes and high winds.

Source: Wikimedia Commons. Author: Leonard G.

Slide 127 / 142 Earthquake Engineering: Incas

The Inca civilization of Peru lived in a highly seismic region; however, many of their structures can still be seen today. Their buildings have

• utlasted many modern buildings.

What did they do differently?

Source: Wikipedia. Author: Rtype909.

Machu Picchu is an Incan site built in the 15th century.

Slide 128 / 142 Earthquake Engineering: Incas

The Incas built their structures with dry stone walls. This means that the stones fit extremely close together with no mortar in between the stones. Because there is no mortar, when an earthquake strikes, the stones are able to shift and resettle without falling over.

Source: Wikipedia. Author: Meneboeuf.

Slide 129 / 142 Earthquake Engineering: Dampers

Dampers are structures engineers use to reduce the amplitude of vibrations or waves. Review: What does amplitude mean? The amplitude of a wave is the distance from the equilibrium point to either the crest or the trough. Dampers are objects of large mass that counteract the movement of a building.

Source: Wikimedia Commons. Author: Paumier.

Slide 130 / 142

Hold out your hand and try to balance a thin pole on it. Can you do it? Is it hard?

Try This!

Now place a small weight on the top of the thin pole. Is it easier to balance now? The weight at the top of the pole counteracts the motion of the pole. Dampers use this same principle to protect buildings from earthquakes. Step 1: Step 2:

Slide 131 / 142 Earthquake Engineering: Dampers

The damper is suspended from an upper part of a building. The damper hangs freely, able to move independently from the building. When the building sways during a seismic event, the damper will move in an opposite direction, pulling the building back. This reduces the amplitude of the building's movement.

Source: Wikimedia Commons. Author: Someformofhuman.

Taipei 101 is a skyscraper in

• Taiwan. A large damper is located

between the 87th floor and the 91st floor to protect the building from earthquakes.

Click here to watch a video that shows how dampers are used in a bridge in Japan.

Slide 132 / 142 Earthquake Engineering: Base Isolation

Another technique that engineers use is called base isolation. Think about those two words. Base and Isolation. What do you think this means for a building design. Brainstorm some ideas below.

Slide 133 / 142 Earthquake Engineering: Base Isolation

To do this, an "isolation unit" is placed between the building and the

• ground. The building rests securely on top of them. The isolation

units are able to move from side to side. During an earthquake, the isolation units move while the building remains intact on top. The purpose of base isolation is to isolate the bottom, or base, of a building from the ground.

Source: Wikimedia Commons. Author: Shustov.

These springs can move up/down and side to side during an

• earthquake. The building rests on

top of the springs and is not damaged.

Slide 134 / 142 Earthquake Engineering: Base Isolation

Click here to watch a short base isolation animation.

Both of these building designs underwent shake table testing. The

• ne on the left was directly attached to the ground. The one on

the right had a base isolation system on the bottom.

Source: Wikimedia Commons. Author: Shustov.

Attached to ground Base isolation

Slide 135 / 142 Earthquake Engineering: Materials

Engineers also test different materials, thickness of materials and reinforcement of materials on earthquake resistance. For example, a group of Stanford engineers found that gluing thick drywall onto the framing was more resilient than nailing thin drywall

• nto framing. Also, reinforcing stucco with mesh and nails was

another inexpensive way to make a house more resistant to earthquakes.

Click here to watch a video about technology used at the Earthquake Engineering Research Center.

Source: Wikimedia Commons. Author: Lock.

Incorporating these techniques will help to reduce the damage done by earthquakes.

Slide 136 / 142 Design Challenge: Earthquake Resistant Building

Now it's your turn! Use your knowledge and the available materials to make the most earthquake resistant building in the classroom.

Source: Wikimedia Commons. Author: Behrad18n.

The Mausoleum of Cyrus in ancient Persia (modern day Iran) is the oldest base isolated structure in the world.

Slide 137 / 142

Works Cited

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Slide 138 / 142

Abassi, Logan 2010, Haiti earthquake damage.jpg, photograph, viewed on 3 June 2015, <http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Haiti_earthquake_damage.jpg>. AlejandroLinaresGarcia 2010, PopoAmeca2.jpg, photograph, viewed on 4 June 4, 2015, <http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:PopoAmeca2.JPG>. Atwater, Brian F. et al. 2005, Tsunami Formation, diagram, viewed on 9 June 2015, <http://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/c1187/>. AusAID 2005, Tsunami 2004 Aftermath. Aceh, Indonesia, 2005. Photo-AusAID (10730863873).jpg , photograph, viewed on 9 June 2015, <http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Tsunami_2004_aftermath._Aceh,_Indonesia,_2005._Photo-_AusAID_(10730863873).jpg>. Behrad18n 2005, Cyrus tomb.jpg, photograph, viewed on 12 June 2015, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cyrus_tomb.jpg>. Cantus 2004, 2004 Indian Ocean Earthquake – affected countries.png, diagram, viewed on 8 June 2015, <commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:2004_Indian_Ocean_earthquake_-_affected_countries.png>. Chan, Christophe Dang Ngoc 2006, Onde cisaillement impulsion 1d 30 petit.gif, animation, viewed on 2 June 2015, <http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Onde_cisaillement_impulsion_1d_30_petit.gif>. Chan, Christophe Dang Ngoc 2006, Onde compression impulsion 1d 30 petit.gif, animation, viewed on 2 June 2015, <http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Onde_compression_impulsion_1d_30_petit.gif>. Danjahner 2007, FinancialNorth.jpg, photograph, viewed on 12 June 2015, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:FinancialNorth.jpg>. Descloitres, Jacques 2003, Hawaje-NoRedLine.jpg, photograph, viewed on 1 June 2015, <http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hawaje-NoRedLine.jpg>. Fredrik 2004, Destructive plate margin.png, diagram, viewed on 1 June 2015, <http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Destructive_plate_margin.png>. Gringer 2009, Pacific Ring of Fire.svg, diagram, viewed on 1 June 2015, <http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Pacific_Ring_of_Fire.svg>. Harlow, D. 1991, Pinatubo ash plume 910612.jpg, photograph, viewed on 1 June 2015, <http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Pinatubo_ash_plume_910612.jpg>. Harriv 2005, TsunamiHazardZone.jpg, photograph, viewed on 1 June 2015, <http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:TsunamiHazardZone.jpg>. Hawaii Volcano Observatory 2006, Pahoehoe toe.jpg, photograph, viewed on 2 June 2015, <http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Pahoehoe_toe.jpg>. Hawaii Volcano Observatory 2009, Sampling lava with hammer and bucket.jpg, photograph, viewed on 4 June 2015, <http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Sampling_lava_with_hammer_and_bucket.jpg>. Henning, Lucas 2014, Glass Doors on the Tsunami House, photograph, viewed on 10 June 2015, <http://www.smithsonianmag.com/innovation/house-built-withstand-force-tsunami-180949455/?no-ist>.

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Henning, Lucas 2014, The Tsunami House, photograph, viewed on 10 June 2015, <http://www.smithsonianmag.com/innovation/house-built-withstand-force-tsunami-180949455/?no-ist>. International Tsunami Information Center 2015, Tsunami in Banda Aceh, Indonesia, photograph, viewed on 10 June 2015, <http://itic.ioc-unesco.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&layout=blog&id=1179&Itemid=1179>. Johnson Space Center 2006, MtCleveland ISS013-E-24184.jpg, photograph, viewed on 2 June 2015, <http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:MtCleveland_ISS013-E-24184.jpg>. Klett, E. 1994, Dds-40-097 large.jpg, photograph, viewed on 2 June 2015, <http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Dds40-097_large.jpeg>. Krapf, Hansueli 2012, 2012-01-13 13-24-58 Spain Canarias Cofete.jpg, photograph, viewed on 12 June 2015, <http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:2012-01-13_13-24-58_Spain_Canarias_Cofete.jpg>. Lachaume, Regis 2005, Propagation du tsunami en profondeur variable.gif, animation, viewed on 9 June 2015, <http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Propagation_du_tsunami_en_profondeur_variable.gif>. Lancevortex 2000, Pompeii Garden of the Fugitives 02.jpg, photograph, viewed on 2 June 2015, <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pompeii_Garden_of_the_Fugitives_02.jpg>. Leonard G. 2009, TransamericaPyramidFromTI.jpg, photograph, viewed on 11 June 2015, <http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:TransamericaPyramidFromTI.jpg>. Lock, Master Sgt. Jeremy 2010, Defense.gov photo essay 100117-F-1644L-082.jpg, photograph, viewed on 11 June 2015, <http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Defense.gov_photo_essay_100117-F-1644L-082.jpg>. Los688 2008, Hotspot(geology)-1.svg, diagram, viewed on 1 June 2015, <http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hotspot(geology)-1.svg>. McDaniel, Philip A. 2005, Indian Ocean Tsunami, photograph, viewed on 8 June 2015, <http://www.navy.mil/view_image.asp?id=19968>. McGimsey, Game 2006, Augustine Volcano Jan 12 2006.jpg, photograph, viewed on 1 June 2015, <http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Augustine_Volcano_Jan_12_2006.jpg>. Meneboeuf, Christophe 2005, MachuPicchu Residential (pixxinn.net).jpg, photograph, viewed on 11 June 2015, <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MachuPicchu_Residential_(pixinn.net).jpg>. Milan, Jean-Jacques 2004, Ressort de compression.jpg, photograph, viewed on 2 June 2015, <http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ressort_de_compression.jpg>. Ji-Elle 2011, Lipari-Obsidienne (5).jpg, photograph, viewed on 26 June 2015, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Lipari-Obsidienne_(5).jpg>.

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