Native American Timeline v.4.3 Around 40-16,000 B.C.E. First - - PDF document

World Religions - Chapter 2, Black Elk Speaks — Native American Timeline Page 1 of 8

Native American Timeline

v.4.3 Around 40-16,000 B.C.E. • First Americans - hunter gatherers cross the Bering land bridge from

• Asia. Archeological evidence from the Old Crow Flats in Canada indicates human habitation at

this site from about 30,000 years ago to 11,000 years ago. Some archeologists claim to have discovered human-worked mammoth bone at Bluefish Caves in Canada that dates to 24,000 years ago. 11,500 B.C.E. • The Clovis people (the Llano culture) appear in western North America. Known for their use of the Clovis point, a specifically shaped spearhead, Clovis sites are found throughout North and Central America, and even in Venezuela in northern South America, and they may have been the ancestors of most, if not all, Native peoples in the Americas. 5000 B.C.E. • First experiments at cultivation in North America in Mexico – about the same time as the Sumerians begin experimenting with intensive agriculture, and not long after cultivation first begins in the Middle East, China, India, and Africa 200 C.E. • Potatoes are cultivated in the Peruvian Andes. 200-400 • Hopewell tradition from Ontario to the Gulf of Mexico built burial mounds including a young man and woman buried side by side. She wore “thousands of pearl beads” and copper bracelets, and both “wore copper earspools, copper breastplates, and necklaces of grizzly canines.” (Fiedel, Prehistory in the Americas, 238) 650-1400 • Cahokia Mounds people in southern Illinois live in a city larger than London in 1250 C.E. and has a population larger than any other North American city until Philadelphia reaches 20,000 people in the 18 century. The largest mound, at 21,690,000 cubic feet, has a base that

th

is 250,000 square feet larger than the largest Egyptian pyramid and remained the largest human construction in North America until the 20 century. They traded with folks from the

th

Great Lakes to Oklahoma and from the Carolinas to Wyoming, an area larger than most of modern Europe. 1400's • Tobacco and chocolate (cocoa) are cultivated by the Aztecs in Mexico,

• North American Indian population in excess of ten million, total for the Americas probably

about 20 million 1492 • Columbus comes to the "New World," annihilates the Arawak Indians. Finding no gold, but needing to turn a profit, Columbus began enslaving Indians, keeping some on Caribbean plantations and shipping thousands back to Seville in Europe. Jack Weatherford writes in Native Roots that Columbus “financed his explorations by trading in the flesh of captured Indian slaves” (136). Miguel de Cuneo writes that on one trip in 1495 they returned to Europe with 550 slaves, 200 of which died while the fleet was at sea. 1497

• John Cabot seizes the first North American Indian slaves 123 years before the first successful

British colony. European fishing fleets and whalers enslaved Native peoples from their earliest journeys to the Western Atlantic. 1500's • Iroquois League holds all land in common, hunts cooperatively, and divides the catch among all in each village; women are quite important and named the men who would govern. Jack Weatherford suggests that the Iroquois and Algonquin peoples influenced Thomas Paine and other colonial thinkers, and in the early 19 century Alexis de Tocqueville would write of the

th

Indian love independence in his Democracy in America. 1519

• Having enslaved all of the Indians available in the local islands, Diego Columbus,

Christopher’s son, writes to King Charles V of Spain asking permission to import African slaves to replace the Indians. 1520

• Portuguese explorer Gaspar Côrte-Real sails up the North American coast where he captures

several score Nakapi natives and takes them home to sell as slaves in Lisbon, giving the land the name “Terra del Laboratore” or “the land of the workers,” or perhaps “slave coast,” known today as Labrador in Eastern Canada.

World Religions - Chapter 2, Black Elk Speaks — Native American Timeline Page 2 of 8 1520

• Cortez destroys Aztec civilization of Mexico after Cortez co-opts Malinche to interpret for

him and after Montezuma mistakes Cortez for Queztalcoatal, the Aztec high god. 1524

• Giovanni Verrazano explores North America and captures Indian slaves.

1526

• First African slaves imported into South Carolina by Lucas Vásquez de Ayllón. They escaped

to live with the local Indians when the Spanish colony failed. 1534

• Frenchman Jaques Cartier captures native slaves, including the Huron woman Agaya who

reversed scurvy amongst his sailors with a medicine made from evergreen trees. 1576

• Englishman Martin Frobisher enslaves native Inuit men to guide his ships exploring the Arctic.

1530's • In the Carolinas Spanish conquistador Hernando DeSoto enslaves the Lady of Cutifachiqui and her people, and steals 25,000 pounds of pearls. 1539

• Inca Garcilaso de la Vega, descendant of Incan emperors and historian of the empire, was
• born. His mother’s cousin, Tupac Amaru, was the last of the Incan emperors to reign before he

was beheaded by the Spanish in Cuzco (the navel of the universe to the Incas). 1596

• Queen Elizabeth exiles all dark-skinned peoples, Indians and blackamores, from her realm.

British colonials, therefore, sold their Indian slaves in Bermuda and other British colonies, and even in Africa. There are reports of Indian slaves sold in Algiers, Morocco, along the west coast and in the islands west of Africa. 1607 • Jamestown (Va.) settled in April. In 1609 - "Starving Time" - 500 Virginia colonists reduced to 60. 1612

• John Rolfe plants Caribbean tobacco (the native Virginia crop being too strong for him), which

would pay off the colonists’ debts and make Virginia a financial powerhouse in the New World. Virginians enslaved Indians to work the fields, but eventually settled on African slaves using the sugar cane plantation model of the Caribbean. 1619

• First Africans, 20 Angolans, were imported into Virginia aboard the White Lion, a British pirate

under Dutch flag. Half of all early white settlers were indentured servants, and the colonists decided to treat Africans the same way. The first legally recognized slave would be John Casor who in 1654 was owned by another black man, Anthony Johnson, an Angolan who had earned his freedom. By 1860 the slave population would number 4 million. 1620

• The Pilgrims land at Plymouth in what is now called Massachusetts. Not used to living wild,

they likely would have starved without the help of Squanto, a Wampanoag Indian who spoke English because he had been enslaved in 1614 by Thomas Hunt, an Englishman from whom he escaped. The Wampanoag natives taught the Pilgrims how to take a living from the forest by hunting, from the shore by fishing, and from the earth by planting Indian corn, pumpkins, beans, and squash. Thousands of natives in the area would die over the next several years from disease and warfare with the Europeans who would then settle the Indian land and take over the Indian crops. 1626

• Peter Minuit buys an island from the Manhattan Indians for 60 guilders (about $24). We still

call the island Manhattan... or New York City. 1629

• Massachusetts colony founded; John Winthrop declares the area a legal "vacuum" without

inhabitants even though it was inhabited by Indians (natural vs. civil rights to property). 1633

• Pizarro destroys the Inca empire of Peru.

1636

• The Pilgrims attack and destroy the last of the local natives in Massachusetts and

Connecticut, divide up their property, and ship the prisoners out as slaves. 1640

• Colonial population 27,950

1670s • The English colonists launched major attacks against the Indians, executing older male prisoners and selling younger males and females as slaves in Spain and in the Caribbean. Owners in the colonies would brand their slaves on the forehead with a symbol of ownership.

• Harvesting whole villages and selling the inhabitants into slavery helped to finance the

next phase of colonial expansion. Boston becomes the center of Indian slave trade until the growth of Charleston from selling Cherokee, Creek, and Choctaw slaves eclipses Boston.

World Religions - Chapter 2, Black Elk Speaks — Native American Timeline Page 3 of 8

• An Indian slave cost significantly less than an African slave, so there was a reliance on

Native slaves as plantations were established. As late as 1709, a fourth of all slaves in South Carolina were Indians. 1740

• Colonial population 889,000

1769

• The Spanish move up the Mexican coast into modern California, founding San Diego and

enslaving the native population of Indians. 1789 • George Washington elected President 1790

• Colonial population 3,929,214 (81% of which are Whites, of whom ¾ of a million are slaves)

NC population 393,751 (73% Whites) 1791

• Thomas Paine’s The Rights of Man is published. It would help trigger the Revolutionary War.

Of course, only white men, and landowners at that, are real men. 1801 • Thomas Jefferson becomes President 1803

• Louisana Purchase - Fur trading becomes an important part of Oglala Sioux life.

1804 • The Sioux meet the Lewis and Clark expedition. 1830

• Congress passes the Indian Removal Act in 1830 which mandated the removal of Native

Americans from east of the Mississippi River to the newly established Indian Territory located in what is present-day Oklahoma. 1848 • Gold is discovered at Sutter's Mill, California. The subsequent "Gold Rush" and Euro-American settlement in California results in a drop from 120,000 to 20,000 in California Indian population. 1849 • Zachary Taylor becomes President 1850 • Millard Fillmore becomes President

• U.S. population 23,191,876 (over 3¾ million of whom are slaves)
• NC’s population is 661,563, 64% of whom are White - it’s worth noting that some studies put

the percentage of slaves at almost half of NC’s population rather than 36%. 1851

• Treaty of Fort Laramie of 1851 — The purpose of the Treaty was to force the Indians to

agree to allow Euro-Americans to pass through their territory on their way to the far west. In exchange, the U.S. government agreed to respect tribal boundaries and pay the tribes for the rights of passage. 1853 • Franklin Pierce becomes President 1854

• Henry David Thoreau uses the word honk for the first time in English or American literature.

The word, like many English words, has an Indian source — honck, a Narraganset word for Canada goose. 1855

• September 3 - Colonel William Harney attacks and massacres a Brulé village full of

women and children in the Battle of Ash Hollow in Nebraska.

• The battle was in retribution for the killing of 30-50 soldiers in The Grattan Massacre in

Wyoming in 1854, where the soldiers entered a Lakota village to arrest a man for stealing a

• cow. After one of the soldiers shot the Brulé chief Conquering Bear in the back, the warriors
• pened fire on the soldiers led by Lieutenant Grattan.
• The Brulé are one of the seven sub-tribes of the Teton Lakota Sioux. Their Sioux name was

Sichángu Oyáte, and many now live on the Rosebud Indian Reservation in South Dakota. Black Elk’s tribe, the Oglala, were also one of the seven sub-tribes of the Teton (Western) Sioux. See

• ch. 2 note in BES.

1857 • James Buchanan becomes President 1860 • U.S. population 31,443,321 (about 4 million of whom are slaves) 1861 • Abraham Lincoln becomes President 1862 • The Homestead Act - A flood of settlers unleashed upon the Indian lands.

• Beginning of the Sioux Uprising (or Santee War) on August 18 - in Minnesota driving the

Santee Sioux survivors from their homeland to the safety of the lands of their western relatives.

• Mankato Massacre on December 26, 1862 - The mass execution of 38 mostly innocent

World Religions - Chapter 2, Black Elk Speaks — Native American Timeline Page 4 of 8 Sioux men in Mankato, MN, for crimes during the Sioux Uprising. Newspapers all over the frontier printed engravings of the 38 dead Sioux hanging by the neck.

1863

• Black Elk (Heháka Sápa) born in December, 1863, in the Powder River region of

Wyoming.

1864

• Sand Creek Massacre (November 29, 1864) Cheyenne and Arapaho awaiting surrender

terms are attacked; more than 130 people killed--mostly women and children. 1865

• Andrew Johnson becomes President
• October 14, 1865 - The Southern Cheyenne chiefs sign a treaty agreeing to cede all the

land they formerly claimed as their own, most of the Colorado Territory, to the U.S. government.

• Late Fall, 1865 - Nine treaties signed with the Sioux - No war chiefs signed these treaties.

1866

• Equal Rights Bill, April 1, 1866 – Congress overrides President Johnson's veto - of the Civil

Rights Bill, giving equal rights to all persons born in the U.S. (except Indians).

• Negotiations at Fort Laramie, Late Spring 1866 – War chiefs Red Cloud, Spotted Tail,

Standing Elk, Dull Knife - and others come to Fort Laramie to negotiate treaty for access to the Powder River Basin.

• Fourteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution (June 13, 1866) gives African-Americans

rights of citizenship, is forwarded to the states for ratification.

• December 21, 1866 - Battle of One Hundred Slain / Fetterman Massacre. See BES ch.2.
• Plains tribes banded together and declared war on the United States.
• Young Lakota warriors, including Crazy Horse, executed an elaborate decoy maneuver

to draw soldiers out of the fort.

• They were successful and killed 81 soldiers. (The name “One Hundred Slain” comes

from a Cheyenne prophecy about the Indians killing 100 soldiers.)

• Casualties among the Indians were great because they were poorly armed to compete

with the new repeating rifles of the soldiers. 1867

• Summer - Grand Council of 6,000 tribes at Bear Butte, the sacred mountain of the

Cheyenne, attended by Crazy Horse, Red Cloud, and Sitting Bull, among other great leaders, pledged to end further encroachment by the whites. 1868

• The Sioux Indians sign a treaty with the U.S. guaranteeing their rights to the Black Hills
• f Dakota (sacred to the Sioux).
• U.S. agrees to abandon the forts on the Bozeman Trail.
• Treaty creates the Great Sioux Reservation and agrees that the Sioux do not cede

their hunting grounds in Montana and Wyoming territories.

• The Indians agree to become "civilized."
• George Armstrong Custer established himself as a great Indian fighter by attacking an

unarmed gathering of Cheyenne at the Massacre on the Washita (killing mostly women and children) in Indian Territory (Oklahoma) in which Black Kettle is killed. 1869

• Ulysses S. Grant becomes President
• Transcontinental Railroad cuts iron paths through Native lands on the Great Plains.

1873

• General Custer and the Seventh Cavalry come to the Northern Plains to guard the

surveyors for the Northern Pacific Railroad.

• The panic of 1873 is followed by the collapse of the economy. Depression lasts until 1877.

1874

• General Custer and his army troops are sent to prospect for gold in the Black Hills of
• Dakota. Gold is discovered and Euro-American prospectors pour into the area. The Sioux revolt

but later are expelled from the Black Hills by act of Congress (1877). See BES ch. 7. 1876

• The U.S. Government issues an ultimatum that all Sioux who are not on the Great Sioux

Reservation by January 31 will be considered hostile. Most Sioux do not hear of the ultimatum until after the deadline.

World Religions - Chapter 2, Black Elk Speaks — Native American Timeline Page 5 of 8

• Battle of Powder River, March 17, 1876 - General George Crook's advance column attacks

a Sioux/Cheyenne camp on the Powder River. See BES ch.8.

• Spring 1876 - Sitting Bull organizes the greatest gathering of Indians on the Northern

Plains.

• The Battle of the Rosebud, June 17, 1876, General Crook is forced to retire from the

"pincers" campaign. See BES ch.8.

• The Battle of The Little Big Horn (1876): General Custer and 250 soldiers are killed when

they attack a large hunting camp of Sioux, Cheyenne, and Arapaho on the Little Big Horn River in Montana. The news reaches the east in time for Independence Day Centennial celebrations.

• Black Elk tells of being at the battle as a young boy of 12 in ch. 9 of BES.

1877

• Early May - Sitting Bull escapes to Canada. He has about 300 followers with him. See BES
• ch. 12.
• On May 6, 1877 - Crazy Horse surrenders at Fort Robinson.
• Rutherford B. Hayes becomes President

1877

• On September 6, 1877 - Crazy Horse is killed. See BES ch. 11.
• The Manypenny Agreement is ratified by Congress, taking the Paha Sapa (Black Hills) and

confining the Indians to reservations. 1881

• Sitting Bull surrenders, July 19 - Sitting Bull and 186 of his remaining followers surrender at

Fort Buford. He is sent to Fort Randall for 2 years as a prisoner of war instead of being pardoned, as promised.

• James A. Garfield becomes President
• Chester A. Arthur becomes President (after Garfield dies from duelling wounds)

1885

• Grover Cleveland becomes President

1887

• Congress passes the Dawes Allotment Act in 1887, giving the President power to

reduce landholdings of Indian nations by alloting 160 acres to Indian heads of

• households. “Surplus” land is opened to settlement.
• More than 80 million acres of Indian land were opened for Euro-American settlement.

1889

• Great Sioux Reservation dissolved - The Sioux sign an agreement with the U.S.

government breaking up the great Sioux Reservation. The Sioux will get six separate small

• reservations. The major part of their land was thrown open to settlers. See BES ch. 23.
• Benjamin Harrison becomes President

1890s • During the 1890s, the U.S. government began an aggressive campaign to "civilize" Indian people by rounding up Indian children and sending them away to boarding schools.

• First step in "civilizing" the children was to cut their hair and burn their clothes and replace

them with "civilian" or Euro-American style of dress.

• The children were forbidden to speak their Native language subject to severe punishment if

they violated this rule. 1890

• GHOST DANCE - In mid-1890, Wovoka, a Paiute prophet, defined a new religion combining

Christian and Native elements.

• Massacre at Wounded Knee Creek - Armed troops opened fire with rifles and four Hotchkiss

guns (early revolving barrel machine guns) on a band of Lakota people killing over 200 men, women, and children. Colonel James W. Forsyth had orders to disarm the Sioux. When he

• rdered the Indians to surrender their weapons, apparently Yellow Bird, a medicine man, began

dancing the Ghost Dance, and massacre soon followed.

• Although he says in Black Elk Speaks that he was untouched by bullets as he moved through

the gunfire in his sacred Ghost Dance shirt. Other records seen to indicate that Black Elk may have been injured at Wounded Knee. See BES ch. 24.

1893

• Grover Cleveland becomes President

World Religions - Chapter 2, Black Elk Speaks — Native American Timeline Page 6 of 8 1896

• James R. Walker comes to Pine Ridge as a medical doctor. His study of the Lakota would

eventually be published as the foundational Lakota Belief and Ritual.

• This same year Franz Boas was hired at the American Museum of Natural History where he

emphasized the value of native traditions. He was fired from the museum but continued to influence anthropological studies as a Professor at Columbia University. 1897

• William McKinley becomes President

1898

• Congress passes the Curtis Act (1898) which ended tribal sovereignty and mandated

allotment of tribal lands in Indian Territory. 1901

• Theodore Roosevelt becomes President

1902

• Clark Wissler, working for Franz Boas, visits Pine Ridge and interests James R. Walker in

doing field anthropological studies with the Lakota. 1909

• William Howard Taft becomes President

1910

• Sun Dance Revival - After the suppression of the Ghost Dance religion, a number of Plains

tribes began to revive the traditional Sun Dance. Beginning in 1910, bands of Shoshones began meeting with Southern Paiutes and other tribal groups to participate in the Sun Dance. 1912

• Native American Church founded

1924 • U.S. Congress passes a law declaring all Native Americans U.S. citizens, entitling Native people to the right to vote in national elections.

1931

• Black Elk talks with John G. Neihardt in the summer. These interviews form the core
• f Black Elk Speaks.

1932

• B lac k Elk Sp e aks as told to Neihardt published from interviews the year before.

1934

• The Indian Reorganization Act is passed by Congress encouraging Native Americans to

"recover" their cultural heritage. In order to take advantage of funding under the IRA, tribes are required to adopt a U.S. style constitution. While many tribes do adopt a constitution, many

• ther tribes, including the Navajo, refuse to do so.

1944

• Neihardt conducts a second set of interviews with Black Elk. These form the basis for

When the Tree Flowered. 1947

• Joseph Epes Brown lives with Black Elk whose teachings become Brown’s The Sacred Pipe.

1950

• Black Elk dies in August at The Pine Ridge Reservation in South Dakota.

1950s • During the 1950s, the U.S. government adopts an official policy of "terminating" tribes. Termination involved settling all federal obligations to a tribe, withdrawing federal support (e.g., health services, education) and closing the reservation. 1969

• Alcatraz occupied - A small group of militant Native Americans calling themselves the

"Indians of All Tribes" occupy the (abandoned) island of Alcatraz in November 1969 to protest conditions in contemporary Indian America. The occupation lasted for two years and brought national attention to problems in Indian country.

• Dennis Banks and George Mitchell, two Chippewa (Anishinaabe) living in Minneapolis-St.

Paul, organize the American Indian Movement (AIM) to protest police brutality against Indians. 1969

• Vine Deloria's Custer Died for Your Sins (recommended) and N. Scott Momaday's The

Way to Rainy Mountain (1969, strongly recommended). Momaday starts an American Indian Literature Program at the University of California. 1970

• President Richard Nixon formally ends the Termination policy.
• Dee Brown, Bury my Heart At Wounded Knee (highly recommended).

1972

• AIM members and other Indian leaders organize "The Trail of Broken Treaties" during

fall 1972. Thousands of Indians drove to Washington, D.C. to demand that the U.S. government recognize tribal rights to self-determination. While in Washington, Indians occupy BIA headquarters.

World Religions - Chapter 2, Black Elk Speaks — Native American Timeline Page 7 of 8 1973

• Pine Ridge Incident, part 1 - In Winter 1973, AIM members and Lakota Sioux occupy the

trading post at Wounded Knee Village to draw attention to problems on the Pine Ridge Reservation in South Dakota. 1975

• In response to the storm of Indian protests, Congress passes the Indian

Self-Determination Act. The Act states in part that, "the Congress hereby recognizes the

• bligation of the United States to respond to the strong expression of the Indian people for

self-determination by assuring maximum Indian participation in the direction of educational as well as other Federal services to Indian communities so as to render such services more responsive to the needs and desires of those communities." 1975

• Pine Ridge Incident, part 2 - Two FBI agents are killed at Pine Ridge in 1975 and Leonard

Peltier, an AIM member, is later convicted of the killings and sent to federal prison. This event is the subject of a 1992 documentary, Incident at Oglala (recommended), directed by Michael Apted and a book entitled In the Spirit of Crazy Horse by Peter Mathiessen (highly recommended), not to mention being featured in Rage Against the Machine’s music video “Freedom” http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vqcM5lVoteQ. 1978

• Congress passes the American Indian Religious Freedom Act requiring federal agencies

to analyze the impact of federal development on Native American sacred sites. 1992

• Quincentenary of the “Discovery” of America: commemorating the 500th anniversary of

Columbus's arrival in the Americas.

World Religions - Chapter 2, Black Elk Speaks — Native American Timeline Page 8 of 8 Some possible Native American source words — English contains over 2,000 loan words from the Native peoples of the Americas.

Anorak - Inuit Avocado - Nahuatl, “testicle,” for the fruit’s shape Barracuda - Carib Bayou - Chocktaw Buffalo - Paiute Bullet - Athabaskan Burying the hatchet - fr. Iroquois confederacy legend of peace Cat - Yupik Canoe - Arawak or Carib Caribou - Micmac (Algonquian), “paw scratcher,” for its scratching aside snow to find food Chesapeake - Algonquian, chesepioc, “great shellfish bay” Chigger - Carib Chinook - Salish, moist warm Pacific wind Chipmunk - Ojibwa (Algonquian), “red squirrel,” or “one who climbs down trees headfirst” Connecticut - Mohican (Algonquian) quinnitukqut "at the long tidal river" Cougar - Tupi or Guarani Firewater - Algonquian, scoutiouabou Hammoc - Taino (Haiti), Indian sleeping device adopted by European sailors Hickory - Powhatan (Algonquian) Honk -Delaware, word for Canada goose Hooch - Chinook, cheap liquor Hurricane - Carib, fierce storms of the Caribbean, for which the Europeans has no word, storm simply not being violent enough Illinois - Algonquian, ilinouek, “ordinary speaker” Igloo - Inuit Jaguar - Guarani Kayak - Yupik Mahogany - Maya (Honduras) Manatee - Carib Manhattan - Delaware (Algonqian),munahan, “island” Massachusetts - first recorded in 1614, name for the people who lived near Blue Hill, SW of Boston - Algonquian, massachusett "at the large hill” Mississippi - Ojibwa(Algonquian), mshiziibi, “big river” Missouri - Chiwere (Sioux), “people with big canoes” Moccasin - Algonquian Mohawk - Iroquois, mohowawogs, “ Moose - Naragansett (Algonquian), moos, “he strips

• ff,” for the animal’s tendency to strip the

bark off of trees in the winter Mugwump - Natick Mukluk - Inuit Muskrat - Algonquian Nebraska - Sioux, ni braska, “flat river” Ohio - Seneca/Iroquois, “good river” Okay - Choctaw, oke, “it is so” Oklahoma - Choctaw, “red people,” used as the name for the Indian Territory set aside for the relocation of displaced Indians from east

• f the Mississippi

Opossum - Powhatan (Algonquian), apasum, ”white animal” Paleface - Ojibwa (Algonquian), wabinesiwin Parka - Aleut/Samoyed Pecan - Algonquian & Cree Persimmon - Algonquian Pocosin - Delaware, wooded area in a coastal swamp Podunk - Algonquian, an isolated neck of land Poncho - Araucanian or Mapuche Potato - Taino (Haiti) Potomac - Algonquian village name Powwow - Algonquian Puma - Quechua (Peru) Punk - Delaware word for wood that burns fast, perhaps for dust or powder Quinine - Quechua (Peru) Raccoon - Powhatan (Algonquian), arahkun, “washes with hands,” “wash bear” Saguaro - Pima Savanna - Taino (Haiti) Scuppernong - Algonquian, Skunk - Abenaki (Algonquian), seganku, “urinating fox” Smoking the peace pipe - common tradition from the East Coast to the Great Plains Squash - Narraganset (Algonquian), askutasquash, “green things that can be eaten raw” Tepee - Dakota Terrapin - Algonguin - Abenaki, turepe; Delaware, tulpe Tobacco - Arawakan Tobaggan - Micmac Tomato - Nahuatl Tuxedo - Algonquian, tuksit, “round foot,” implying they fell down in surrender regularly, a pejorative term for the Wolf tribe – the Griswold family established the Tuxedo Club and the jacket & tails appeared there in the 1880's, the tuxedo Wigwam - Algonquian Yankee - Cherokee, eankke, “slave” or “coward,” a derisive term for Europeans

• Delaware, yankwis, “snake”; or yankwako,

“English snake” Yucca - Taino (Haiti)