Linguistics 101 for Writers and Readers of Science Fiction and - - PowerPoint PPT Presentation

Linguistics 101 for Writers and Readers of Science Fiction and Fantasy Can-Con 2016

Tamara Vardomskaya University of Chicago vardomskayat@uchicago.edu vardomskaya.com September 10, 2016

Goal of This Talk

This is a brief introduction to language and linguistics for writers and readers of SF and fantasy.

Goal of This Talk

This is a brief introduction to language and linguistics for writers and readers of SF and fantasy. In this talk I will give you some pointers as to how to make the language of your imaginary aliens/societies richer.

Goal of This Talk

This is a brief introduction to language and linguistics for writers and readers of SF and fantasy. In this talk I will give you some pointers as to how to make the language of your imaginary aliens/societies richer. After all, having them all speak Standard American English is both implausible and boring!

Important Notes

I use ‘aliens’ as a general term, covering non-humans/post-humans in both science fiction and fantasy.

Important Notes

This is NOT a talk on conlanging — creating an entire new language:

Important Notes

This is NOT a talk on conlanging — creating an entire new language:

◮ J. R. R. Tolkien and Elvish

Important Notes

This is NOT a talk on conlanging — creating an entire new language:

◮ J. R. R. Tolkien and Elvish ◮ Marc Okrand and Klingon

Important Notes

This is NOT a talk on conlanging — creating an entire new language:

◮ J. R. R. Tolkien and Elvish ◮ Marc Okrand and Klingon ◮ David Peterson and Dothraki...

Important Notes

This is NOT a talk on conlanging — creating an entire new language:

◮ J. R. R. Tolkien and Elvish ◮ Marc Okrand and Klingon ◮ David Peterson and Dothraki...

My goal is to let you ‘add flavour’ to your imaginary societies, but at most have a consistent naming system and a few words here and there.

Important Notes

This is NOT a talk on conlanging — creating an entire new language:

◮ J. R. R. Tolkien and Elvish ◮ Marc Okrand and Klingon ◮ David Peterson and Dothraki...

My goal is to let you ‘add flavour’ to your imaginary societies, but at most have a consistent naming system and a few words here and there. We’re imagining that all or much of your fiction is ‘translated’ into 21st Century Standard English; here’s how to make the translation feel real.

Structure of the Talk

Structure of the Talk

The History of every major Galactic Civilization tends to pass through three distinct and recognizable phases, those of Survival, Inquiry and Sophistication,

• therwise known as the How, Why, and Where
• phases. For instance, the first phase is characterized

by the question ‘How can we eat?’, the second by the question ‘Why do we eat?’ and the third by the question ‘Where shall we have lunch?’ – Douglas Adams

Structure of the Talk

The History of every major Galactic Civilization tends to pass through three distinct and recognizable phases, those of Survival, Inquiry and Sophistication,

• therwise known as the How, Why, and Where
• phases. For instance, the first phase is characterized

by the question ‘How can we eat?’, the second by the question ‘Why do we eat?’ and the third by the question ‘Where shall we have lunch?’ – Douglas Adams

◮ HOW does language differ from other communication

systems?

Structure of the Talk

The History of every major Galactic Civilization tends to pass through three distinct and recognizable phases, those of Survival, Inquiry and Sophistication,

• therwise known as the How, Why, and Where
• phases. For instance, the first phase is characterized

by the question ‘How can we eat?’, the second by the question ‘Why do we eat?’ and the third by the question ‘Where shall we have lunch?’ – Douglas Adams

◮ HOW does language differ from other communication

systems?

◮ WHY do languages and dialects differ?

Structure of the Talk

The History of every major Galactic Civilization tends to pass through three distinct and recognizable phases, those of Survival, Inquiry and Sophistication,

• therwise known as the How, Why, and Where
• phases. For instance, the first phase is characterized

by the question ‘How can we eat?’, the second by the question ‘Why do we eat?’ and the third by the question ‘Where shall we have lunch?’ – Douglas Adams

◮ HOW does language differ from other communication

systems?

◮ WHY do languages and dialects differ? ◮ WHERE can we differentiate our languages and dialects?

HOW IS LANGUAGE DIFFERENT FROM OTHER COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

What do we need for language?

So what do we use language for?

What do we need for language?

For communication.

What do we need for language?

How is this not language?

What do we need for language?

Some of the most interesting key features of human language (see Appendix for the full list):

What do we need for language?

Some of the most interesting key features of human language (see Appendix for the full list):

◮ Arbitrariness - there is NO connection between signal and

meaning

What do we need for language?

Some of the most interesting key features of human language (see Appendix for the full list):

◮ Arbitrariness - there is NO connection between signal and

meaning

◮ Productivity - you can say something completely new and it

will be understood

What do we need for language?

Some of the most interesting key features of human language (see Appendix for the full list):

◮ Arbitrariness - there is NO connection between signal and

meaning

◮ Productivity - you can say something completely new and it

will be understood

◮ Displacement - you can talk about things that are not there

What do we need for language?

Some of the most interesting key features of human language (see Appendix for the full list):

◮ Arbitrariness - there is NO connection between signal and

meaning

◮ Productivity - you can say something completely new and it

will be understood

◮ Displacement - you can talk about things that are not there ◮ Prevarication - you can lie (or create fiction)

What do we need for language?

Some of the most interesting key features of human language (see Appendix for the full list):

◮ Arbitrariness - there is NO connection between signal and

meaning

◮ Productivity - you can say something completely new and it

will be understood

◮ Displacement - you can talk about things that are not there ◮ Prevarication - you can lie (or create fiction) ◮ Reflexiveness - you can use language to talk about

language

What do we need for language?

Some of the most interesting key features of human language (see Appendix for the full list):

◮ Arbitrariness - there is NO connection between signal and

meaning

◮ Productivity - you can say something completely new and it

will be understood

◮ Displacement - you can talk about things that are not there ◮ Prevarication - you can lie (or create fiction) ◮ Reflexiveness - you can use language to talk about

language

◮ Cultural transmission - language is learned in a social

setting and is part of the culture of a social group

What do we use language for?

Homework 1 (credit to Lawrence M. Schoen):

What do we use language for?

Homework 1 (credit to Lawrence M. Schoen): Try coming up with aliens who use a ‘language’ missing one of these features! (Check Appendix for more language features.)

What do we use language for?

Homework 1 (credit to Lawrence M. Schoen): Try coming up with aliens who use a ‘language’ missing one of these features! (Check Appendix for more language features.)

◮ Embassytown by China Mieville has aliens missing

Displacement and Prevarication.

What do we use language for?

Homework 1 (credit to Lawrence M. Schoen): Try coming up with aliens who use a ‘language’ missing one of these features! (Check Appendix for more language features.)

◮ Embassytown by China Mieville has aliens missing

Displacement and Prevarication.

◮ ‘Darmok’ in Star Trek: TNG has aliens missing Productivity:

everything is a reference to something said before.

WHY DO LANGUAGES AND DIALECTS DIFFER?

Why do languages and dialects differ?

Language is a trade-off between a form of communication and an expression of identity.

Why do languages and dialects differ?

Language is a trade-off between a form of communication and an expression of identity.

◮ Almost all communication:

Why do languages and dialects differ?

Language is a trade-off between a form of communication and an expression of identity.

◮ Almost all communication: air traffic controller language,

tax forms...

◮ Almost all statement of self-identity, group identity:

Why do languages and dialects differ?

Language is a trade-off between a form of communication and an expression of identity.

◮ Almost all communication: air traffic controller language,

tax forms...

◮ Almost all statement of self-identity, group identity: Ode to

a Small Lump of Green Putty I Found in My Armpit One Midsummer Morning

Why do languages and dialects differ?

Language is a trade-off between a form of communication and an expression of identity.

◮ Almost all communication: air traffic controller language,

tax forms...

◮ Almost all statement of self-identity, group identity: Ode to

a Small Lump of Green Putty I Found in My Armpit One Midsummer Morning

• Stream-of-consciousness poetry, rap lyrics, etc.

Why do languages and dialects differ?

Language is a trade-off between a form of communication and an expression of identity. Because of CULTURAL TRANSMISSION, different groups in your society will use differing languages:

Why do languages and dialects differ?

Language is a trade-off between a form of communication and an expression of identity. Because of CULTURAL TRANSMISSION, different groups in your society will use differing languages:

◮ Ethnicity or race

Why do languages and dialects differ?

Language is a trade-off between a form of communication and an expression of identity. Because of CULTURAL TRANSMISSION, different groups in your society will use differing languages:

◮ Ethnicity or race ◮ Social class

Why do languages and dialects differ?

Language is a trade-off between a form of communication and an expression of identity. Because of CULTURAL TRANSMISSION, different groups in your society will use differing languages:

◮ Ethnicity or race ◮ Social class ◮ Region

Why do languages and dialects differ?

Language is a trade-off between a form of communication and an expression of identity. Because of CULTURAL TRANSMISSION, different groups in your society will use differing languages:

◮ Ethnicity or race ◮ Social class ◮ Region ◮ Gender (and sexuality)

Why do languages and dialects differ?

Language is a trade-off between a form of communication and an expression of identity. Because of CULTURAL TRANSMISSION, different groups in your society will use differing languages:

◮ Ethnicity or race ◮ Social class ◮ Region ◮ Gender (and sexuality) ◮ Age

Why do languages and dialects differ?

Language is a trade-off between a form of communication and an expression of identity. Because of CULTURAL TRANSMISSION, different groups in your society will use differing languages:

◮ Ethnicity or race ◮ Social class ◮ Region ◮ Gender (and sexuality) ◮ Age ◮ Profession (licit or illicit - jargon, argot)

Why do languages and dialects differ?

Language is a trade-off between a form of communication and an expression of identity. Because of CULTURAL TRANSMISSION, different groups in your society will use differing languages:

◮ Ethnicity or race ◮ Social class ◮ Region ◮ Gender (and sexuality) ◮ Age ◮ Profession (licit or illicit - jargon, argot) ◮ Species?

Why do languages and dialects differ?

Diglossia - when a society has different groups within it using very different forms of the language, or even different languages (with many, or even most individuals being bilingual

• r bi-dialectal)

Why do languages and dialects differ?

Diglossia - when a society has different groups within it using very different forms of the language, or even different languages (with many, or even most individuals being bilingual

• r bi-dialectal)

◮ French-Canadians in Ottawa - Canadian English,

Quebecois French, Standard French

Why do languages and dialects differ?

Diglossia - when a society has different groups within it using very different forms of the language, or even different languages (with many, or even most individuals being bilingual

• r bi-dialectal)

◮ French-Canadians in Ottawa - Canadian English,

Quebecois French, Standard French

◮ African-Americans: Standard American English and

African-American Vernacular English (AAVE)

Why do languages and dialects differ?

Diglossia - when a society has different groups within it using very different forms of the language, or even different languages (with many, or even most individuals being bilingual

• r bi-dialectal)

◮ French-Canadians in Ottawa - Canadian English,

Quebecois French, Standard French

◮ African-Americans: Standard American English and

African-American Vernacular English (AAVE)

◮ Imperial Russia: French to other aristocrats, Russian to

servants and serfs

Why do languages and dialects differ?

Diglossia - when a society has different groups within it using very different forms of the language, or even different languages (with many, or even most individuals being bilingual

• r bi-dialectal)

◮ French-Canadians in Ottawa - Canadian English,

Quebecois French, Standard French

◮ African-Americans: Standard American English and

African-American Vernacular English (AAVE)

◮ Imperial Russia: French to other aristocrats, Russian to

servants and serfs

◮ Tamil in South India and Sri Lanka: formal “written” Tamil is

quite different in pronunciation than colloquial “spoken” Tamil

Why do languages and dialects differ?

Diglossia - when a society has different groups within it using very different forms of the language, or even different languages (with many, or even most individuals being bilingual

• r bi-dialectal)

◮ French-Canadians in Ottawa - Canadian English,

Quebecois French, Standard French

◮ African-Americans: Standard American English and

African-American Vernacular English (AAVE)

◮ Imperial Russia: French to other aristocrats, Russian to

servants and serfs

◮ Tamil in South India and Sri Lanka: formal “written” Tamil is

quite different in pronunciation than colloquial “spoken” Tamil

◮ The Caucasus: one speaks one’s village language and

that of the village downhill — but not uphill!

Why do languages and dialects differ?

Homework 2:

Why do languages and dialects differ?

Homework 2: Think about where in your (human or alien) society there would be a diglossic situation.

Why do languages and dialects differ?

Homework 2: Think about where in your (human or alien) society there would be a diglossic situation. What subgroups does your society value, so aspects of their language would be prestigious?

Why do languages and dialects differ?

Homework 2: Think about where in your (human or alien) society there would be a diglossic situation. What subgroups does your society value, so aspects of their language would be prestigious? What subgroups would want tight bonds with each other, and use language to set themselves apart?

WHERE (IN WHAT FEATURES) DO LANGUAGES VARY AMONG THEMSELVES?

Where do languages vary among themselves?

Now that you’ve considered in what contexts your characters will have differences in their language, we can talk about what those differences may be.

Where do languages vary among themselves?

The study of language is divided into branches, and we can vary around each of those:

Where do languages vary among themselves?

The study of language is divided into branches, and we can vary around each of those:

◮ phonetics - what the sounds of language are

Where do languages vary among themselves?

The study of language is divided into branches, and we can vary around each of those:

◮ phonetics - what the sounds of language are ◮ phonology - how the sounds of language work together

systematically

Where do languages vary among themselves?

The study of language is divided into branches, and we can vary around each of those:

◮ phonetics - what the sounds of language are ◮ phonology - how the sounds of language work together

systematically

◮ morphology - how we form words

Where do languages vary among themselves?

The study of language is divided into branches, and we can vary around each of those:

◮ phonetics - what the sounds of language are ◮ phonology - how the sounds of language work together

systematically

◮ morphology - how we form words ◮ syntax - how we form words into sentences

Where do languages vary among themselves?

The study of language is divided into branches, and we can vary around each of those:

◮ phonetics - what the sounds of language are ◮ phonology - how the sounds of language work together

systematically

◮ morphology - how we form words ◮ syntax - how we form words into sentences ◮ semantics - how we fit words together to get meanings

Where do languages vary among themselves?

The study of language is divided into branches, and we can vary around each of those:

◮ phonetics - what the sounds of language are ◮ phonology - how the sounds of language work together

systematically

◮ morphology - how we form words ◮ syntax - how we form words into sentences ◮ semantics - how we fit words together to get meanings ◮ pragmatics - how we get meanings that are not directly in

the words

Where do languages vary among themselves?

The study of language is divided into branches, and we can vary around each of those:

◮ phonetics - what the sounds of language are ◮ phonology - how the sounds of language work together

systematically

◮ morphology - how we form words ◮ syntax - how we form words into sentences ◮ semantics - how we fit words together to get meanings ◮ pragmatics - how we get meanings that are not directly in

the words Sociolinguistics studies what those language differences reveal about society.

Phonetics and phonology

The speech sounds we can make are determined by the structure of our mouth, throat and windpipe.

Phonetics and phonology

We generally make speech by sending air out of the lungs and constricting the airstream in certain positions.

Phonetics and phonology

We generally make speech by sending air out of the lungs and constricting the airstream in certain positions.

Phonetics and phonology

We generally make speech by sending air out of the lungs and constricting the airstream in certain positions. Where, how, by how much and how fast the constriction occurs is what makes the different consonants and vowels.

Phonetics and phonology

Our aliens would not be able to make most of the sounds of human language if

Phonetics and phonology

Our aliens would not be able to make most of the sounds of human language if

◮ they breathed a different gas (think helium voice)

Phonetics and phonology

Our aliens would not be able to make most of the sounds of human language if

◮ they breathed a different gas (think helium voice) ◮ their mouth was much larger or smaller

Phonetics and phonology

Our aliens would not be able to make most of the sounds of human language if

◮ they breathed a different gas (think helium voice) ◮ their mouth was much larger or smaller ◮ their tongue or lips were a different shape

Phonetics and phonology

Our aliens would not be able to make most of the sounds of human language if

◮ they breathed a different gas (think helium voice) ◮ their mouth was much larger or smaller ◮ their tongue or lips were a different shape ◮ their nose were in a different orientation

Phonetics and phonology

Our aliens would not be able to make most of the sounds of human language if

◮ they breathed a different gas (think helium voice) ◮ their mouth was much larger or smaller ◮ their tongue or lips were a different shape ◮ their nose were in a different orientation ◮ their chest cavity and other resonating spaces were a

different shape or size Talking horses, dogs, cats or dragons, sadly, can’t work!

Phonetics and phonology

Phonetics and phonology

Admiral Ackbar’s mouth is too short and his nasal cavity is too wide to speak human, much less English.

Phonetics and phonology

Phonology is about languages and accents:

Phonetics and phonology

Phonology is about languages and accents:

◮ Of the several hundred sounds humans can make and

distinguish (babies can distinguish all of them!) which ones does your language and dialect use?

Phonetics and phonology

Phonology is about languages and accents:

◮ Of the several hundred sounds humans can make and

distinguish (babies can distinguish all of them!) which ones does your language and dialect use?

◮ And in what contexts?

Phonetics and phonology

Phonology is about languages and accents:

◮ Of the several hundred sounds humans can make and

distinguish (babies can distinguish all of them!) which ones does your language and dialect use?

◮ And in what contexts? ◮ E.g. English L is a different sound at the beginnings of

syllables versus at ends: “bell” vs “bell(y)”

Phonetics and phonology

Phonology is about languages and accents:

◮ Of the several hundred sounds humans can make and

distinguish (babies can distinguish all of them!) which ones does your language and dialect use?

◮ And in what contexts? ◮ E.g. English L is a different sound at the beginnings of

syllables versus at ends: “bell” vs “bell(y)”

◮ In Russian, those are contrastive sounds:

mol = a pier; mol’ = a moth

Phonetics and phonology

Some dialects of English have more contrasting sounds than

• thers

Phonetics and phonology

Some dialects of English have more contrasting sounds than

• thers

◮ cot - caught; merry - marry - Mary; pen - pin

Phonetics and phonology

Some dialects of English have more contrasting sounds than

• thers

◮ cot - caught; merry - marry - Mary; pen - pin

Some make different sounds for the same phoneme (contrasting unit of sound):

◮ Canadian vs New Zealand pronunciations of “bed” and

“bad”

Phonetics and phonology

Some dialects of English have more contrasting sounds than

• thers

◮ cot - caught; merry - marry - Mary; pen - pin

Some make different sounds for the same phoneme (contrasting unit of sound):

◮ Canadian vs New Zealand pronunciations of “bed” and

“bad” Those kinds of differences are what makes an accent - regional, non-native, or class.

Phonetics and phonology

Some dialects of English have more contrasting sounds than

• thers

◮ cot - caught; merry - marry - Mary; pen - pin

Some make different sounds for the same phoneme (contrasting unit of sound):

◮ Canadian vs New Zealand pronunciations of “bed” and

“bad” Those kinds of differences are what makes an accent - regional, non-native, or class. Sign languages have accents too! (Through differences in position and speed of the signs.)

Phonetics and phonology

Where a language allows its sounds to go is shown in the names from that language:

Phonetics and phonology

Where a language allows its sounds to go is shown in the names from that language:

◮ Ludivine ◮ Gwythin ◮ Elayne ◮ Sumeko ◮ Huang Shi ◮ Yohanan / John / Jean / Hans / Ioannes / Ivan / Yannis...

Phonetics and phonology

Where a language allows its sounds to go is shown in the names from that language:

◮ Ludivine ◮ Gwythin ◮ Elayne ◮ Sumeko ◮ Huang Shi ◮ Yohanan / John / Jean / Hans / Ioannes / Ivan / Yannis...

Your names of characters from the same area should follow similar rules — unless you have a historical reason for multicultural borrowing going on.

Phonetics and phonology

Homework 3: What can’t your aliens pronounce? If they’re a different shape entirely, how do they communicate with humans? What kind of sounds are not permitted in the names of your characters’ culture?

Morphology and syntax

How speakers of language put together units to form words, or words to form sentences

Morphology and syntax

How speakers of language put together units to form words, or words to form sentences

◮ Do they use prefixes or suffixes?

Morphology and syntax

How speakers of language put together units to form words, or words to form sentences

◮ Do they use prefixes or suffixes? ◮ Do they have gender marking that shows in the names?

Morphology and syntax

How speakers of language put together units to form words, or words to form sentences

◮ Do they use prefixes or suffixes? ◮ Do they have gender marking that shows in the names? ◮ Are words generally one-syllable or multi-syllable?

Morphology and syntax

How speakers of language put together units to form words, or words to form sentences

Morphology and syntax

How speakers of language put together units to form words, or words to form sentences

◮ What order do words come in:

Morphology and syntax

How speakers of language put together units to form words, or words to form sentences

◮ What order do words come in: ◮ Subject-Verb-Object (English, French...)

Morphology and syntax

How speakers of language put together units to form words, or words to form sentences

◮ What order do words come in: ◮ Subject-Verb-Object (English, French...) ◮ Subject-Object-Verb (Japanese, Korean, Turkish, Tamil...

partially German)

Morphology and syntax

How speakers of language put together units to form words, or words to form sentences

◮ What order do words come in: ◮ Subject-Verb-Object (English, French...) ◮ Subject-Object-Verb (Japanese, Korean, Turkish, Tamil...

partially German)

◮ “Free” order (Latin, Russian, Warlpiri...)

Morphology and syntax

How speakers of language put together units to form words, or words to form sentences

◮ What order do words come in: ◮ Subject-Verb-Object (English, French...) ◮ Subject-Object-Verb (Japanese, Korean, Turkish, Tamil...

partially German)

◮ “Free” order (Latin, Russian, Warlpiri...) ◮ Object - Subject - Verb (Yoda)

If your character got cut off in the middle of speaking, what words did they not say?

Semantics and Pragmatics

What people convey in meaning:

Semantics and Pragmatics

What people convey in meaning: Are there things that certain languages can’t express?

Semantics and Pragmatics

What people convey in meaning: Are there things that certain languages can’t express? No.

Semantics and Pragmatics

But there are things certain languages MUST express:

Semantics and Pragmatics

But there are things certain languages MUST express:

◮ “neighbour” - in French, one must say what gender the

neighbour is

Semantics and Pragmatics

But there are things certain languages MUST express:

◮ “neighbour” - in French, one must say what gender the

neighbour is

◮ “I went to school” - in Russian, one must specify whether

this was a one-time event or a repeated event

Semantics and Pragmatics

But there are things certain languages MUST express:

◮ “neighbour” - in French, one must say what gender the

neighbour is

◮ “I went to school” - in Russian, one must specify whether

this was a one-time event or a repeated event

◮ “aunt” - in Cantonese, one must specify whether the aunt is

• n your father’s or mother’s side

Semantics and Pragmatics

But there are things certain languages MUST express:

◮ “neighbour” - in French, one must say what gender the

neighbour is

◮ “I went to school” - in Russian, one must specify whether

this was a one-time event or a repeated event

◮ “aunt” - in Cantonese, one must specify whether the aunt is

• n your father’s or mother’s side

◮ “It rained” - in Bulgarian, Turkish, Aymara, one must specify

whether one directly saw this, heard about it, or deduced it. (For each of these, there are many, many other languages that do this!)

Semantics and telepathy

Suppose in your world, people can read each other’s minds.

Semantics and telepathy

Suppose in your world, people can read each other’s minds. They don’t speak. They just convey their meaning directly.

Semantics and telepathy

Suppose in your world, people can read each other’s minds. They don’t speak. They just convey their meaning directly. Actually, that’s a lot more complicated than just putting English sentences in italics!

Semantics and telepathy

Try this game. Close your eyes if you need to. As I say each word or you see it

• n the screen, mentally note what comes to your mind

— whether it’s a picture, a sound, a word, a whole scene, a concept — Describe it to yourself.

Giraffe

Dog

Mother

Wilson

Love

Justice

Delicious

Symmetry

Semantics and telepathy

If you want to send thoughts to another’s mind

Semantics and telepathy

If you want to send thoughts to another’s mind

◮ you have to figure out what they are in your internal

“language”

Semantics and telepathy

If you want to send thoughts to another’s mind

◮ you have to figure out what they are in your internal

“language”

◮ you have to figure out what the other person’s internal

“language” is

Semantics and telepathy

If you want to send thoughts to another’s mind

◮ you have to figure out what they are in your internal

“language”

◮ you have to figure out what the other person’s internal

“language” is

◮ and you have to convert your message properly into it.

Semantics and telepathy

If you want to send thoughts to another’s mind

◮ you have to figure out what they are in your internal

“language”

◮ you have to figure out what the other person’s internal

“language” is

◮ and you have to convert your message properly into it.

Frankly, it’s easier just to speak English, French or Warlpiri!

Pragmatics

Pragmatics are the ways (in many cases culture-sensitive) that we convey meaning in a statement without it being in any of the words.

Pragmatics

Pragmatics are the ways (in many cases culture-sensitive) that we convey meaning in a statement without it being in any of the words.

◮ “It’s cold in here.” = Will you shut the window? ◮ “Do you have the time?” = What time is it? ◮ “Can I buy you a drink?” = I want to talk to you.

Pragmatics

Most of “the polite form of saying X” is pragmatically linked to the real request. If we are coming up with politeness rules (or insults), we’re using pragmatics:

Pragmatics

Most of “the polite form of saying X” is pragmatically linked to the real request. If we are coming up with politeness rules (or insults), we’re using pragmatics:

◮ A: “You’re an a**hole.”

Pragmatics

Most of “the polite form of saying X” is pragmatically linked to the real request. If we are coming up with politeness rules (or insults), we’re using pragmatics:

◮ A: “You’re an a**hole.” ◮ B: “No, actually, as you can see, I’m a human being, not a

body part.”

Pragmatics

Most of “the polite form of saying X” is pragmatically linked to the real request. If we are coming up with politeness rules (or insults), we’re using pragmatics:

◮ A: “You’re an a**hole.” ◮ B: “No, actually, as you can see, I’m a human being, not a

body part.”

◮ B: “How dare you insult me?!”

Pragmatics

Homework 4: There’s nothing about words like “please” and “thank you” that literally mean “I’m showing you respect.” Come up with some alternatives for your culture. What is their worst verbal insult or sign of disrespect?

Conclusion

Thank you and enjoy your homework! Questions?

Appendix: Full Features of a Language

A language is a communication system that does all of the following things (Charles F . Hockett, Design Features of Language)

Appendix: Full Features of a Language

A language is a communication system that does all of the following things (Charles F . Hockett, Design Features of Language)

◮ A channel - vocal-auditory for spoken language, visual for

sign language

Appendix: Full Features of a Language

A language is a communication system that does all of the following things (Charles F . Hockett, Design Features of Language)

◮ A channel - vocal-auditory for spoken language, visual for

sign language

◮ Broadcast transmission and directional reception

Appendix: Full Features of a Language

A language is a communication system that does all of the following things (Charles F . Hockett, Design Features of Language)

◮ A channel - vocal-auditory for spoken language, visual for

sign language

◮ Broadcast transmission and directional reception ◮ Transitoriness - said/signed, it disappears (not writing)

Appendix: Full Features of a Language

A language is a communication system that does all of the following things (Charles F . Hockett, Design Features of Language)

◮ A channel - vocal-auditory for spoken language, visual for

sign language

◮ Broadcast transmission and directional reception ◮ Transitoriness - said/signed, it disappears (not writing) ◮ Interchangeability - anything one can hear, one can also

say

Appendix: Full Features of a Language

A language is a communication system that does all of the following things (Charles F . Hockett, Design Features of Language) (cont’d)

Appendix: Full Features of a Language

A language is a communication system that does all of the following things (Charles F . Hockett, Design Features of Language) (cont’d)

◮ Total feedback - one can perceive, control and modify what

• ne says/signs as one is saying it.

Appendix: Full Features of a Language

A language is a communication system that does all of the following things (Charles F . Hockett, Design Features of Language) (cont’d)

◮ Total feedback - one can perceive, control and modify what

• ne says/signs as one is saying it.

◮ Specialization - intended to communicate, rather than as a

side effect

Appendix: Full Features of a Language

A language is a communication system that does all of the following things (Charles F . Hockett, Design Features of Language) (cont’d)

◮ Total feedback - one can perceive, control and modify what

• ne says/signs as one is saying it.

◮ Specialization - intended to communicate, rather than as a

side effect

◮ Semanticity - specific signals have specific meanings

Appendix: Full Features of a Language

A language is a communication system that does all of the following things (Charles F . Hockett, Design Features of Language) (cont’d)

◮ Total feedback - one can perceive, control and modify what

• ne says/signs as one is saying it.

◮ Specialization - intended to communicate, rather than as a

side effect

◮ Semanticity - specific signals have specific meanings ◮ Arbitrariness - there is NO connection between signal and

meaning

Appendix: Full Features of a Language

A language is a communication system that does all of the following things (Charles F . Hockett, Design Features of Language) (cont’d)

Appendix: Full Features of a Language

A language is a communication system that does all of the following things (Charles F . Hockett, Design Features of Language) (cont’d)

◮ Discreteness - you can break down the signals into parts

and rearrange them

Appendix: Full Features of a Language

A language is a communication system that does all of the following things (Charles F . Hockett, Design Features of Language) (cont’d)

◮ Discreteness - you can break down the signals into parts

and rearrange them

◮ Duality of patterning - you can break them down into parts

that have meaning (like words, morphemes) and further into parts that don’t (sounds).

Appendix: Full Features of a Language

A language is a communication system that does all of the following things (Charles F . Hockett, Design Features of Language) (cont’d)

◮ Discreteness - you can break down the signals into parts

and rearrange them

◮ Duality of patterning - you can break them down into parts

that have meaning (like words, morphemes) and further into parts that don’t (sounds).

◮ Productivity - you can say something completely new and it

will be understood

Appendix: Full Features of a Language

A language is a communication system that does all of the following things (Charles F . Hockett, Design Features of Language) (cont’d)

◮ Discreteness - you can break down the signals into parts

and rearrange them

◮ Duality of patterning - you can break them down into parts

that have meaning (like words, morphemes) and further into parts that don’t (sounds).

◮ Productivity - you can say something completely new and it

will be understood

◮ Displacement - you can talk about things that are not there

Appendix: Full Features of a Language

A language is a communication system that does all of the following things (Charles F . Hockett, Design Features of Language) (cont’d)

Appendix: Full Features of a Language

A language is a communication system that does all of the following things (Charles F . Hockett, Design Features of Language) (cont’d)

◮ Prevarication - you can lie (or create fiction)

Appendix: Full Features of a Language

A language is a communication system that does all of the following things (Charles F . Hockett, Design Features of Language) (cont’d)

◮ Prevarication - you can lie (or create fiction) ◮ Reflexiveness - you can use language to talk about

language

Appendix: Full Features of a Language

A language is a communication system that does all of the following things (Charles F . Hockett, Design Features of Language) (cont’d)

◮ Prevarication - you can lie (or create fiction) ◮ Reflexiveness - you can use language to talk about

language

◮ Learnability - you can learn any language

Appendix: Full Features of a Language

A language is a communication system that does all of the following things (Charles F . Hockett, Design Features of Language) (cont’d)

◮ Prevarication - you can lie (or create fiction) ◮ Reflexiveness - you can use language to talk about

language

◮ Learnability - you can learn any language ◮ Cultural transmission - language is learned in a social

setting and is part of the culture of a social group

Appendix: The Apostrophe

A lot of writers put in an apostrophe in fantasy names for “exotic” flavour, not realizing that in real languages, apostrophes serve very specific functions:

Appendix: The Apostrophe

A lot of writers put in an apostrophe in fantasy names for “exotic” flavour, not realizing that in real languages, apostrophes serve very specific functions:

◮ Russian: apostrophes turn unpalatalized consonants into

palatalized ones, and occur only after consonants: mat = mate in chess or swear words; mat’ = mother.

Appendix: The Apostrophe

A lot of writers put in an apostrophe in fantasy names for “exotic” flavour, not realizing that in real languages, apostrophes serve very specific functions:

◮ Russian: apostrophes turn unpalatalized consonants into

palatalized ones, and occur only after consonants: mat = mate in chess or swear words; mat’ = mother.

◮ Caucasian languages and some Native American

languages: apostrophes turn stop consonants into ejectives, and occur only after stop consonants: k, t, p - k’, t’, p’

Appendix: The Apostrophe

A lot of writers put in an apostrophe in fantasy names for “exotic” flavour, not realizing that in real languages, apostrophes serve very specific functions:

◮ Russian: apostrophes turn unpalatalized consonants into

palatalized ones, and occur only after consonants: mat = mate in chess or swear words; mat’ = mother.

◮ Caucasian languages and some Native American

languages: apostrophes turn stop consonants into ejectives, and occur only after stop consonants: k, t, p - k’, t’, p’

◮ In the Wade-Giles system that was used to transliterate

Chinese before pinyin became standard, the apostrophe indicated aspiration and occurs after p, t, k: T’ai Chi.

Appendix: The Apostrophe

A lot of writers put in an apostrophe in fantasy names for “exotic” flavour, not realizing that in real languages, apostrophes serve very specific functions:

Appendix: The Apostrophe

A lot of writers put in an apostrophe in fantasy names for “exotic” flavour, not realizing that in real languages, apostrophes serve very specific functions:

◮ Arabic, Hebrew, Hawai’ian: apostrophes indicate a glottal

stop between vowels and occur mostly between vowels or word-initially.

Appendix: The Apostrophe

A lot of writers put in an apostrophe in fantasy names for “exotic” flavour, not realizing that in real languages, apostrophes serve very specific functions:

◮ Arabic, Hebrew, Hawai’ian: apostrophes indicate a glottal

stop between vowels and occur mostly between vowels or word-initially.

◮ Zulu, Xhosa, Sotho, other Southern African languages:

apostrophes indicate a click sound.

Appendix: The Apostrophe

A lot of writers put in an apostrophe in fantasy names for “exotic” flavour, not realizing that in real languages, apostrophes serve very specific functions:

◮ Arabic, Hebrew, Hawai’ian: apostrophes indicate a glottal

stop between vowels and occur mostly between vowels or word-initially.

◮ Zulu, Xhosa, Sotho, other Southern African languages:

apostrophes indicate a click sound.

◮ English: apostrophes indicate that part of the word that

would be sounded in the most formal version has been

• mitted: don’t, it’s, goin’, e’er

Appendix: The Apostrophe

If you use an apostrophe, you better know exactly what it means and why you need it!

Appendix: The Apostrophe

If you use an apostrophe, you better know exactly what it means and why you need it!

◮ Anne McCaffrey’s dragonriders’ names did use the

apostrophe correctly, for abbreviation: Fallarnon = F’lar

◮ H. P

. Lovecraft’s Pth’thya-l’ya and R’lyeh has apostrophes for no clear reason, but would sound cool with clicks.