Everything You Always Wanted to Know about Poverty in Maine (but - - PowerPoint PPT Presentation

Everything You Always Wanted to Know about Poverty in Maine (but may not have thought to ask)

Teaching and Working in a Diverse World: The Impact of Poverty October 22nd, 2009 University of Maine, Farmington

Ann Acheson, Ph.D. Margaret Chase Smith Policy Center University of Maine

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BACKGROUND: What is poverty?

Can be defined absolutely, as inability to meet very basic

survival needs (e.g.,food, shelter, clean water).

U.S. and other industrialized countries define poverty in

relative terms, i.e., using a poverty “line” or threshold, against which household income and/or consumption is compared.

On the individual level, poverty can be chronic or

temporary.

Poverty is sometimes closely associated with inequity,

and often correlated with social exclusion.

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BACKGROUND: U.S. Federal Poverty Measure

Federal poverty measure: standardized income-

based measure that sets a level for defining poverty.

Developed in the 1950s. Calculated by using cost of a “minimal” food budget

and multiplying by three.

Formula has not changed since the 1960s, even

though there have been major changes in patterns of consumption needs and changes in federal policies and programs.

Federal poverty measure does not take into account

regional differences in cost of living.

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BACKGROUND: Poverty Thresholds

Poverty thresholds: statistical version of the poverty

measure, used to calculate the number of households and individuals in poverty.

When we talk about “poverty rates” it is this

threshold measure to which we refer.

The U.S. Census is the organization with primary

responsibility for collecting information and reporting

• n poverty rates.

Poverty status on the individual level is defined as

any person living in a below-poverty household.

The poverty rate is considered a “lagging indicator,”

in that it tends to continue to rise after the “official” end of recessions.

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BACKGROUND: Poverty Guidelines

Poverty guidelines:

a simplified administrative version of the federal

poverty measure

used in determining eligibility for many government

and non-government programs.

Both thresholds and guidelines are updated annually

based on changes in the consumer price index.

A number of major means-tested benefits programs

do not use the poverty guidelines but have their own eligibility criteria and guidelines.

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BACKGROUND: 2009 Federal DHHS Poverty Guidelines

2009

Persons in Family

• r Household

Annual Income

1 $10,830 2 14,570 3 18,310 4 22,050 5 25,790

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POVERTY IN MAINE: Overview

Maine’s estimated individual poverty rate since 2000

has generally been somewhat below or the same as national rate.

HOWEVER: Maine’s rate of “near poor” (incomes

below 150% or 200% poverty) is higher than national average.

Maine’s individual poverty rate has increased since

2000, when it was 9.2 percent, to 12.2 percent in 2007.

Effects of the current severe recession are not

reflected in the 2007 figures, but 2008 data are likely to show substantial increases in poverty at the national, state and county levels.

Maine and U.S. Individual Poverty Rates, 2000-2007

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Small Area Income and Poverty Estimates (SAIPE)

11.3% 11.7% 12.1% 12.5% 12.7% 13.3% 13.3% 13.0% 9.9% 10.2% 11.0% 10.7% 11.5% 12.3% 12.7% 12.2% 0% 2% 4% 6% 8% 10% 12% 14% 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 U.S. Maine

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Individual Poverty Rates, 2007

There are marked variations in individual poverty rates among Maine’s counties. Washington County in 2007 had the highest rate (20.1%), more than double the rate in York County (8.2%). Poverty rates for several decades have been higher in Maine’s rural “rim” counties (Oxford, Franklin, Somerset, Piscataquis, Aroostook, Washington) than in the southern and Midcoast region and the central counties.

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Margaret Chase Smith Policy Center Do not reproduce without permission.

Children and Poverty

Poverty differentially impacts children: the poverty rate for

children is higher than for the population as a whole.

In 2007, in Maine 13.6% of children under age 18 were

living in below-poverty households, somewhat below the U.S. rate of 16.4%.

Highest rates of child poverty in 2007 were in Washington

(27.6%), Somerset (20.2%) and Franklin and Piscataquis (19.3%) counties. Lowest child poverty rates were in York (9.2%) and Cumberland (9.8%) counties.

Children Under Age 18 Below Poverty, 2007

13.6% 15.3% 17.1% 9.8% 19.3% 12.9% 14.3% 17.2% 15.0% 19.3% 11.4% 20.2% 17.3% 27.6% 9.2% 14.4% 13.6% 16.4% 0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30%

U n i t e d S t a t e s M a i n e A n d r

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% Below Poverty Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Small Area Income and Poverty Estimates (SAIPE)

Margaret Chase Smith Policy Center Do not reproduce without permission

Margaret Chase Smith Policy Center Do not reproduce without permission.

INCOME

Measured in a variety of ways. All poverty data and household income information reported

by the Census are based on self-reported money income.

Means-tested guidelines for benefits eligibility are generally

based on household income and assets; applicants normally have to provide documentation of income and assets in various categories, and sometimes certain expenses.

IRS has yet another way of counting income for taxation

purposes, including wages and self-employment, rental and investment income, and income from several other sources.

Economists often use the measure of personal income as

the most accurate measure of income and economic activity in an area, county, state, or region.

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Personal Income

• U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis measure of personal income

includes 3 categories of cash and non-cash income:

–

Net earnings (wages and self-employment)

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Investments (dividends, interest and rent)

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Transfer payments

• Transfer payments: payments for which no current services are

performed, primarily given by federal, state and local governments. Examples: Gov’t retirement and disability benefits (e.g., social security, military pensions); medical payments to providers (e.g., Medicare, Medicaid); income maintenance benefits (e.g., food stamps, TANF); unemployment insurance benefits.

• Some transfer payments are means-tested but most are not. Non

means-tested benefits (“entitlements”) account for much more of transfer payments in absolute dollar terms than do means-tested benefits aimed at lower-income people.

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Transfer Payments: Importance for Maine’s People and Economy

• A higher proportion of income from transfer payments in an area is

generally an indicator of higher levels of poverty or near poverty, presence of an older population, or both.

• In Maine, wage and self-employment income is a smaller proportion of

personal income than in the U.S. as a whole (63.6% Maine, 67.7% U.S.), while income from transfer payments is substantially higher (19.6% Maine, 14.7% U.S.).

• Nationally and in Maine, government medical benefits constitutes the

largest proportion of transfer payments.

• In most Maine counties, close to half of transfer payments are medical

payments made to providers.

• Payments to providers are not seen or controlled by service recipients.

BUT this kind of income can be an important component of area income, especially in poorer counties with shrinking economic

• pportunities in other sectors.

Percentage of Personal Income, by Type, 2007

67.3% 59.3% 65.6% 59.8% 56.8% 65.2% 55.2% 51.7% 59.9% 65.2% 59.4% 66.4% 63.3% 60.3% 54.5% 67.9% 22.7% 30.8% 13.5% 26.3% 19.1% 21.8% 18.2% 19.2% 27.8% 22.6% 29.5% 16.2% 28.1% 22.4% 35.3% 16.2% 10.0% 9.9% 20.9% 13.8% 24.2% 13.0% 26.5% 29.1% 12.3% 12.1% 11.1% 17.4% 8.6% 17.3% 10.2% 15.9% 63.9% 67.7% 19.6% 14.7% 16.5% 17.5% 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% U . S . M a i n e A n d r

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Earnings Transfer Payments Investments

Source: U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis, Regional Economic Information System

Margaret Chase Smith Policy Center Do not reproduce without permission

Margaret Chase Smith Policy Center Do not reproduce without permission.

Census-reported Income: Maine and the U.S.

• Maine’s median household income is below that of the U.S., and

Maine is in the lowest third of states in this measure.

• Median income is the mid-point of incomes in a given area, with half of

households below and half above this point.

• Maine’s median household income averaged over the 3-year period

from 2005 to 2007 placed Maine as the 31st lowest state in the country (i.e., only 19 states had lower household incomes).

• Aroostook, Piscataquis Somerset and Washington counties’ 2007

median household income was more than 20 percent lower than the state median of $45,832

• HOWEVER, comparisons between Maine and other states and

between counties within the state should be done with caution, as there are major differences in cost of living that can affect purchasing power.

Median Household Income, 2007

$45,832 $45,254 $35,438 $54,992 $39,929 $44,632 $43,913 $44,619 $45,816 $38,359 $41,348 $32,989 $52,375 $35,683 $40,441 $32,624 $52,365 $0 $10,000 $20,000 $30,000 $40,000 $50,000 $60,000 M a i n e A n d r

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Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Small Area Income and Poverty Estimates (SAIPE)

Margaret Chase Smith Policy Center Do not reproduce without permission

Margaret Chase Smith Policy Center Do not reproduce without permission.

EMPLOYMENT

• Employment is the key factor in poverty and economic distress since

earnings from work are the primary income source for most Mainers, especially for lower-income households.

• Employment situation in Maine has been changing, with loss of better-

paying manufacturing jobs and increase in lesser-paying service jobs.

• Maine’s unemployment rate has tended to be slightly lower than the

national average in recent years.

• Maine and national unemployment increased sharply from 2007 to

2008 as the recession took hold. Sharp increase is continuing in 2009 to date.

• The unemployment rate is a “lagging indicator.” During economic

downturns unemployment continues to rise even after the economy starts to improve, as employers do not start hiring immediately.

• Unemployment figures do not include “discouraged workers” who are

not actively seeking work, and part-time workers are considered

• employed. Therefore, the true number of unemployed and

underemployed people is much higher than official figures indicate.

Maine and U.S. Annual Monthly Average Unemployment Rate Trends, 2002-August, 2009

4.4% 5.1% 4.6% 4.8% 4.6% 4.7% 5.4% 5.8% 6.0% 5.5% 5.1% 4.6% 4.6% 5.8% 9.0% 8.4% 0% 1% 2% 3% 4% 5% 6% 7% 8% 9% 10% 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 Jan.- Aug. 2009

Unemployment Rate

Maine U.S.

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Maine Unemployment, 2008

As in previous years, in 2008 there were major differences in unemployment among Maine’s counties. Highest rate of unemployment was in Washington (8.5%) and Piscataquis (8.0%) counties, with Somerset close behind (7.8%). Lowest unemployment rates were in Cumberland (4.0%), Sagadahoc (4.6%) and York (4.9%) counties. Cumberland County had the largest number of unemployed individuals (6,360), followed by York County (5,570).

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Margaret Chase Smith Policy Center Do not reproduce without permission.

Maine Employment Patterns

• Compared to workers nationally, Maine has a higher proportion

working multiple and part-time jobs, either simultaneously or over the course of the year.

• Although the rate of multiple-job holding has decreased nationally

since 1995, in Maine it has increased

• In 2007, 8.1 percent of Mainers reported holding more than one job
• ver the course of the year, compared with 5.2 percent nationally.
• Multiple-job holding is related to two primary factors in Maine:

seasonal employment and low wages.

Maine has a high number of seasonal jobs, especially in the

tourism and natural-resource-based industries.

Income from seasonal work is generally not enough to sustain

families year-round. Seasonal employment earnings in Maine are also unpredictable.

Additionally, lower-wage workers will often work several jobs at the

same time just to get by.

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Why are there marked regional differences in poverty in Maine?

Education:

• Level of educational attainment is one of the most important population

characteristics related to poverty and economic well-being.

• Those with higher levels of educational attainment generally have higher

income levels, greater upward mobility in incomes, and shorter and less frequent periods of unemployment.

• Maine’s higher education attainment lags: 68.9 percent of the state’s

population reported lacking a college degree (associate or higher), compared with 61.3 percent in other New England states and 69.3 percent nationally.

• There are marked regional differences in Maine in higher education
• attainment. In several counties (Androscoggin, Aroostook, Somerset,

Piscataquis, and Washington) close to or greater than 80 percent of the population is lacking a college degree (associate or higher). With the exception of Androscoggin, these are among the counties with the highest poverty rates and lowest median incomes.

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Regional Differences (cont’d)

• Rural-urban: Decades-long out-migration from rural areas, especially

younger people.

• Demography:
• Having a higher proportion of the population not in the work force (termed

the “dependent” population) usually contributes to higher poverty rates.

• Maine currently is the “oldest” state in the country in median age, 41.2 in

2005.

• Counties with a high proportion of the population age 65 and over are

among the poorest in the state: Washington (17.8 percent elders), Piscataquis (17.5 percent elders) and Aroostook (17.4 percent elders). [One county, Lincoln, is an exception to the pattern of “older” areas tending to have higher poverty rates.]

• Jobs and economic base: Rim counties (Washington, Aroostook,

Piscataquis, Somerset, Franklin, Oxford) have a shrinking labor force and a declining number of jobs, due to the differential impact of the decline in resource- and manufacturing-based industries in these areas.

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BENEFITS

• There are a myriad of benefits and programs that can assist lower-

income individuals and families, many of which are aimed at those below the poverty level.

• Many benefits are needs-based (e.g., food stamps), but others are

given regardless of financial need (“entitlements”), e.g., social security retirement, unemployment benefits

• Some provide direct cash payments (e.g., Temporary Assistance to

Needy Families [TANF], unemployment benefits).

• Some provide vouchers or credits for goods or services (e.g., the

supplemental nutrition assistance program [food stamps], child care)

• r subsidies that are paid on behalf of the individual or family (e.g.,

housing, energy).

• Some provide support for education, training, or other employment-

related programs to assist individuals to achieve better-paying, more stable employment and to thereby gain greater self-sufficiency (e.g., the Parents as Scholars [PaS], program; Job Corps; Pell grants).

EXAMPLES OF PROGRAMS TO ADDRESS POVERTY AND ECONOMIC SECURITY

Selected Direct (cash) Payments

Temporary Assistance to Needy Families (TANF)—U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (U.S. DHHS) and Maine Department of Health and Human Services (Maine DHHS) Office of Integrated Access and Support General Assistance—Short-term emergency funds administered through municipalities to allow purchase of basic necessities for those without means to pay Supplemental Security Income (SSI)—Federal, administered by Social Security Administration, designed to help aged, blind, and disabled people who have little or no income Earned Income Tax Credit (EITC)—Federal and state, administered through the Internal Revenue Service and Maine Revenue Services, aimed at working families Unemployment Insurance Benefits—U.S. Department of Labor and employers, administered by Maine Department of Labor

Selected Subsidies/Vouchers

Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP; formerly food stamps)—U.S. Department of Agriculture and Maine DHHS Office of Integrated Access and Support Free and Reduced School Lunch—U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), administered by Maine Department of Education Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants and Children (WIC)—USDA and Maine DHHS Office of Integrated Access and Support Child Care Vouchers—Federal Child Care Development Fund and Maine DHHS Office of Child and Family Services Low Income Home Energy Assistance Program (LIHEAP)—U.S. DHHS, administered by Maine Community Action agencies Weatherization Assistance—U.S. Department of Energy, administered by Maine Community Action agencies Housing (Rental) Subsidies—U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Renewal (HUD) and MaineHousing. Programs include Housing Choice vouchers (Section 8), Rental Assistance Coupons Plus (aimed at the homeless), subsidized apartments.

Selected Employment, Training and Education Programs

Pell Grants, Subsidized Loans—U.S. Department of Education, for higher education Parents as Scholars (PaS)—U.S. DHHS and Maine DHHS Office of Integrated Access and Support (student aid program to help low-income parents enrolled in two- or four-year college programs) Job Corps—U.S. Department of Labor

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Margaret Chase Smith Policy Center Do not reproduce without permission.

SUPPLEMENTAL NUTRITION ASSISTANCE [FOOD STAMP] PROGRAM

The food stamp program is one of the

most wide-reaching benefits programs in Maine and the country in terms of numbers of households and people served.

Food stamp use in both the U.S. and

Maine has increased since 2002.

In the last two fiscal years (October

2007-September 2009), participation in the food stamp program increased more sharply in response to difficult economic circumstances of the recession (job loss, decreased work hours, loss of benefits).

Households Receiving Food Stamps and Program Participation Rate, Monthly Average

101,729 88,863 83,059 83,431 81,329 72,990 64,159 54,501 19.6% 17.1% 16.0% 16.1% 15.7% 14.1% 12.4% 10.5%

10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 50,000 60,000 70,000 80,000 90,000 100,000 110,000 2001-02 2002-03 2003-04 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 Number of Households 0% 2% 4% 6% 8% 10% 12% 14% 16% 18% 20% Participation Rate

Source: Maine Department of Health and Human Services, Geographic Distribution of Programs and Benefits, Report RE-PM001.

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Individuals Receiving Food Stamps, by Month, Jan. 2007-Sept. 2009

160,889 162,669 164,841 166,166 167,446 168,058 168,561 169,611 169,323 169,531 171,356 172,459 174,507 176,103 177,966 178,243 180,995 181,084 181,814 183,575 184,707 186,715 189,658 192,526 195,688 198,841 203,901 206,841 209,032 212,038 214,542 217,096 218,285 150,000 160,000 170,000 180,000 190,000 200,000 210,000 220,000 J a n u a r y F e b r u a r y M a r c h A p r i l M a y J u n e J u l y A u g u s t S e p t e m b e r O c t

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Number of Individuals Receiving Food Stamps

2007 2008 2009

Source: Maine Department of Health and Human Services, Geographic Distribution of Programs and Benefits, Report RE-PM001.

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Margaret Chase Smith Policy Center Do not reproduce without permission.

SCHOOL LUNCH PROGRAM

• National program is administered through the state’s

Department of Education.

• Though commonly referred to as the “school lunch

program,” breakfast may also be included.

• Since free and reduced school lunch eligibility is linked

to poverty rates, counties with higher poverty rates generally have higher rates of school lunch eligibility.

• However, the school lunch benefit reaches a higher

percentage of “near poor” since children with household incomes between 130% and 180% of poverty guideline are eligible for reduced-price meals.

• In the 2008-2009 school year, 39.2% of students in

Maine were eligible for free or reduced lunch

• Percentage of eligible students in Maine has climbed

steadily since the 2002-2003 school year.

Enrolled Students Eligible for Free or Reduced Meals and Program Participation Rates

73,130 64,133 65,988 67,013 69,125 71,536 75,364 37.6% 39.1% 36.4% 34.7% 33.1% 32.7% 30.7%

50,000 55,000 60,000 65,000 70,000 75,000 80,000 2002-03 2003-04 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 25% 30% 35% 40% 45% Number Participating Participation Rate

Source: Maine State Department of Education. http://portalx.bisoex.state.me.us/pls/doe_sfsr/eddev.ed534.ed534_parameters

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Margaret Chase Smith Policy Center Do not reproduce without permission.

SCHOOL LUNCH PROGRAM

More than half of students in Oxford,

Piscataquis, Somerset, Waldo, and Washington counties were eligible for free or reduced lunch in the 2008-2009 school year.

In Cumberland, Sagadahoc and York

counties, less than a third were eligible.

The percentage of students eligible for free

and reduced lunch is important as a poverty indicator.

The percentage of eligible students is

important also because a higher eligibility level entitles schools and school districts to

• btain additional federal funds and to

participate in programs aimed at disadvantaged students.

Enrolled Students Eligible for Free or Reduced-Price Meals, as of October 31, 2008

46.1% 49.4% 27.3% 47.8% 35.1% 40.0% 45.4% 50.7% 42.3% 53.7% 32.4% 53.8% 50.6% 56.7% 30.2% 39.1% 38.9%

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% State Androscoggin Aroostook Cumberland Franklin Hancock Kennebec Knox Lincoln Oxford Penobscot Piscataquis Sagadahoc Somerset Waldo Washington York Source: Maine State Department of Education. http://portalx.bisoex.state.me.us/pls/doe_sfsr/eddev.ed534.ed534_parameters

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Margaret Chase Smith Policy Center Do not reproduce without permission.

EARNED INCOME TAX CREDIT

• The earned income tax credit (EITC) is the federal government’s largest anti-

poverty program for those under age 65 .

• EITC is a tax benefit designed to encourage work and assist families to become

independent.

• This benefit for low- and moderate-income workers helps reduce the impact of

payroll and income taxes and also supplements earnings for very low-wage workers.

• Size of the federal tax credit depends on household income from work and on

family size.

• Unlike the minimum wage, amounts are indexed to inflation each year.
• Working families with children with annual incomes below about $34,000 to

$41,000 (depending on marital status and number of children) generally are eligible for the EITC.

• Workers without children who have very low incomes, below about $13,000, or

$16,000 for a married couple, can receive a very small credit.

• Among families with children, the average size of the federal credit in the U.S.

in 2006 was $2,375.

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EARNED INCOME TAX CREDIT

• In Maine in 2006 14.1% claimed the credit on their federal tax returns. For all

EITC filers, the average credit was $1,687, a total of $148,095,392 for the whole state.

• 24 states and the District of Columbia also have state earned income tax
• credits. The amount of the state credit is set as a percentage of the federal

credit, ranging from 3.5% (Louisiana) to as much as 43% (Wisconsin). Maine is

• n the lower end of states in its earned income tax credit of 5%.
• The federal credit, and the credit in most states, is refundable. Refundable

credits provide a payment even if no taxes are owed, i.e., if the amount of the credit is greater than the tax liability, the government pays the difference to the worker as a cash rebate. (The federal credit was made refundable because policymakers recognized that the income tax is not the only federal tax paid by low- and middle-income workers, who usually pay much more in payroll taxes than in income taxes.)

• Maine until this year was one of only a handful of states with a non-refundable
• credit. However, in 2009 the legislature passed a tax-overhaul package,

including making the state EITC partially refundable. The tax changes are scheduled to go into effect in tax year 2010 unless the current TABOR referendum passes.

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SOME CLOSING THOUGHTS

• Poverty in Maine remains persistent. Marked regional disparities in

economic distress have existed for decades within the state.

• HOWEVER, while poverty on the population level may be

persistent, over time a considerable number of individuals and families move in and out of the ranks of those classified by official measures as “poor.”

• Compared to the nation as a whole, Maine has a higher

percentage of near poor (“working poor”) who generally are not eligible for most benefits. This population is very vulnerable to increases in costs for basic needs (e.g., food, energy, medical care, housing).

• Even in areas of the state with lower poverty rates and lower

unemployment, housing is unaffordable for many lower wage workers; those living in more affordable housing away from urban and coastal areas can find commuting costs prohibitive when fuel prices increase as they did last year.

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SOME CLOSING THOUGHTS

• There is no single approach and no single set of policies that will move

large numbers of people permanently out of poverty, but key program and policy components include:

• Developing and expanding jobs with adequate wages and benefits.
• “Investing early” in young at-risk children through provision of high quality

preschool, child care, and parent education programs.

• Increasing funding for low- and moderate income students to pursue higher

education.

• Improving healthcare access and affordability.
• Addressing high housing and energy costs.
• Continued provision of safety net benefits (e.g., TANF, food stamps,

Medicaid) for the most vulnerable.

• Changing tax policies to further support lower income workers.
• Federal, state, local, and private efforts are all needed.

“Everything You Always Wanted to Know about Poverty in Maine (but may not have thought to ask)” Conference: Teaching and Working in a Diverse World: The Impact of Poverty October 22nd, 2009 University of Maine Farmington Contact Information

• Dr. Ann Acheson

Margaret Chase Smith Policy Center York Village, Bldg. #4 University of Maine Orono, ME 04469-5784 ann.acheson@umit.maine.edu

For further information on poverty in Maine:

Margaret Chase Smith Policy Center Poverty Reports (2003, 2006) and Newsletters (2008, 2009) http://mcspolicycenter.umaine.edu/?q=poverty_in_Maine Maine Policy Review 2009 Special issue on early childhood, Vol. 18(1) http://mcspolicycenter.umaine.edu/?q=MPRcurrent-issue Maine State Planning Office, Annual Poverty Reports

2009: http://www.state.me.us/spo/economics/docs/publications/2009%20Report%20on%20Poverty.pdf 2008: http://www.state.me.us/spo/economics/docs/publications/2008%20Report%20on%20Poverty.pdf

Some good websites on poverty in the U.S.

University of Wisconsin Center for Research on Poverty http://www.irp.wisc.edu/ National Poverty Center, University of Michigan http://www.npc.umich.edu/ University of Kentucky Center for Poverty Research http://www.ukcpr.org/ West Coast Poverty Research Center, University of Washington http://www.ukcpr.org/ National Center for Children in Poverty (NCCP) http://www.nccp.org Penn State University, Poverty in America http://www.povertyinamerica.psu.edu/

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