Effectiveness of Career Development? Ask a Precise Question if You - - PDF document

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This paper is an extract from a keynote presentation prepared for the Career Development Association of New Zealand. Cite as: McIlveen, P. (2016). Effectiveness of Career Development? Ask a Precise Question if You Want a Precise Answer. Keynote paper presented at the Symposium of the Career Development Association of New Zealand, Christchurch, 3 October.

Effectiveness of Career Development? Ask a Precise Question if You Want a Precise Answer Peter McIlveen University of Southern Queensland

Career development practitioners are challenged to provide evidence of the relevance of their research, expertise in delivering career guidance and developing informational resources, and effectiveness of their interventions. The paper addresses the chronic problems of unemployment, under-employment, and obstacles to job search effectiveness. These problems are contextualized in the paradigmatic Psychology of Working Framework and the empirically robust Social Cognitive Career Theory. Contemporary empirical research demonstrates that career development research and interventions offer practical directions for action by policy leaders, practitioners, and researchers. Keywords: career development, unemployment, Psychology of Working, SCCT, decent work The research field

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vocational psychology and its professional arm, career development (guidance), have for a century, or more in some nations, provided theories and practices that guide the way people make informed decisions and transitions into and through education systems and the labour market. Whether it be discerning individual’s alignment with an occupation on the basis of their skills, knowledge, and interests, or designing and delivering high quality career information resources in schools, universities, and vocational education and training, professional career development practitioners are the experts in evidence-based career decision-making and

• transitions. No other professional group can claim

this distinctive contribution to successful negotiation of developmental tasks across the lifespan, from schooling to retirement. Un/Underemployment is Trauma Unemployment and underemployment are scourges—nothing short of a problem of public

• health. Unemployed people are at greater risk of

poorer physical health (Griep et al., 2015) and mental health (Wanberg, 2012), including suicidal behavior (Breuer, 2014; Drydakis, 2014; Madianos, Alexiou, Patelakis, & Economou, 2014; Milner, Morrell, & LaMontagne, 2014; Milner, Page, & LaMontagne, 2013, 2014), and change in personality, such as agreeableness, conscientiousness, and openness (Boyce, Wood, Daly, & Sedikides, 2015). Unemployment not only diminishes mental health. In turn, poorer mental health is a risk factor for unemployment (Butterworth, Leach, Pirkis, & Kelaher, 2012; Olesen, Butterworth, Leach, Kelaher, & Pirkis, 2013), which sets up a vicious cycle that entraps those with mental health issues in poverty. Furthermore, poor quality employment confers similar negative effects on mental health. Tragically, suicide is concomitant to unemployment (Milner, Morrell, et al., 2014; Milner, Page, et al., 2014; Norstrom & Gronqvist, 2015; Reeves, McKee, & Stuckler, 2014) and evident higher rates of suicide within the first five years of unemployment (Milner et al., 2013). Thus, with the provision of interventions for unemployment and re-employment within their scope of professional expertise, career practitioners must also be alert to associated mental health concerns and suicidality (Popadiuk, 2013). Poverty is inherent to unemployment and underemployment and it too has devastating effects. It is alarming that poverty is associated with diminished cognitive development in children (Dickerson & Popli, 2016; Heberle & Carter, 2015; Kalil, Duncan, & Ziol-Guest, 2016). Decent Work In the presence of such compelling evidence about the pernicious effects

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unemployment and underemployment, scholars in the field have turned their attention to the notion decent work (Blustein, Olle, Connors-Kellgren, & Diamonti, 2016; International Labour Office, 2015). The psychology of working framework (Blustein, 2006, 2013) and, most recently, the psychology of working theory (Duffy, Blustein, Diemer, & Autin, 2016) hold decent work as central to wellbeing and self-determination of the individual and the contexts in which the individual relates to others (e.g., family community). Their conviction is rational given that poor quality work wreaks havoc on psychological wellbeing (Butterworth, Leach, McManus, & Stansfeld, 2013; Butterworth et al., 2011).

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This paper is an extract from a keynote presentation prepared for the Career Development Association of New Zealand. Cite as: McIlveen, P. (2016). Effectiveness of Career Development? Ask a Precise Question if You Want a Precise Answer. Keynote paper presented at the Symposium of the Career Development Association of New Zealand, Christchurch, 3 October.

According to the PWT, crucial influences emanating from economic constraints and marginalization can negatively affect a person’s work volition and career adaptability, which, in turn, positively affect a person’s likelihood of securing decent work. This dynamic tension between negative and positive factors is moderated by a person’s proactive personality, critical consciousness, social support, and economic

• conditions. Thus, in times of reasonable economic

conditions which produce demand for labour in an inclusive society, stronger levels of volition and career adaptability should enable a person to seek, secure, and enjoy decent work—thereby, living comfortably, and fulfilling psychological needs of autonomy, relatedness, and competence (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Unfortunately, that ideal state of affairs is not the norm for millions of people on earth and the PWF/PWT bring into sharp focus those factors that inhibit and promote decent work. The trauma of unemployment is serious enough without the added burden of exhaustion, physical and mental, from searching for work. As indicated in the PWT, financial constraints and marginalization work against a person achieving decent work and reinforce a cycle of poverty for family community. This assumption is evident in research that finds financial difficulties and social exclusion produce job search fatigue and, vice versa, psychological capital reduces job search fatigue (V.

• K. G. Lim, Chen, Aw, & Tan, 2016). The same

research found that job search fatigue related to the quality of re-employment, which related to intention to quit. In other words, exhausted job seekers tend to find lower quality work which then leads to intention to quit—a vicious cycle. This finding reflects the futility of exploratory job search behavior (i.e., any job will do), which predicts the number of job offers, as does a focused strategy, however, the exploratory approach is negatively associated with quality employment. Additional research affirms the relation between career adaptability and employability, promotability, workplace performance, and vice versa, turnover intention (Rudolph, Lavigne, & Zacher, 2017). Thus, the PWF and PWT broaden the focus and ethical mandate of career development. The field’s traditional foci (e.g., career decision-making, vocational interests, and developmental stages) remain important; it is just that they can now be subsumed under the greater cause of decent work for those who seek it. In this way, the PWF is paradigmatic; it allows for other vocational psychology theories to provide their specialized perspectives on career-related behaviour that contributes to a person securing decent work. The social cognitive career theory (Lent, 2013) with its core construct self-efficacy is entirely suitable in this regard. The SCCT can be used to describe and predict an array of career behaviours, including self-management (Lent & Brown, 2013), academic satisfaction (Singley, Lent, & Sheu, 2010), work satisfaction (Lent & Brown, 2006, 2008), wellbeing (Lent, 2004), career interests and choice (Lent, Brown, & Hackett, 1994). The SCCT’s self-efficacy is underpinned by a legion of studies (Brown & Lent, 2016) and self-efficacy is conceptually and empirically similar to career adaptability and volition. Self-efficacy predicts outcome expectations and, moreover, job search goals which, in turn, predicts job search actions (R. H. Lim, Lent, & Penn, 2016). While PWT is new and developing as a theory, it is plausible to borrow evidence from SCCT studies which highlight the role of self-efficacy as agency and recast agency though the concepts volition and career adaptability. Measures of Characteristic Adaptations A person may be thought of as a mix of enduring traits (e.g., conscientiousness, vocational interests), characteristic adaptations (e.g., self- efficacy, career adaptability, career optimism), and life stories (McAdams, 1995). McAdams’ tripartite model of the person is applied in the career construction theory (Savickas, 2005). As researchers and practitioners, often times we want to know what is amenable to change over time and, moreover, what is amenable to intervention. In

• ther words, what cannot be changed and what can

be changed. Personality can change subtly over time (Roberts, Walton, & Viechtbauer, 2006) but tends to be stable, except in the case of trauma (e.g., unemployment, brain injury). Similarly, vocational interests hold strongly too and predict life outcomes

• ver decades (Rottinghaus, Coon, Gaffey, &

Zytowski, 2007; Stoll et al., 2016). Furthermore, personality and vocational interests may interact with one another (Wille & De Fruyt, 2013). Although it is useful to measure these two stable qualities in a person when conducting research and practice, the pressure to provide evidence often pertains to factors that are amenable to change. Consider, for example, recent research that reveals how career optimism—a characteristic adaptation— mediates the effect

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personality (e.g., conscientiousness) on career engagement (McIlveen, Beccaria, & Burton, 2013; McIlveen & Perera, 2015) and academic adjustment. Thus, measuring characteristic adaptations is appropriate. There are several characteristic adaptations highlighted in the literature (Rottinghaus & Miller, 2014). The following are suggested because of their relevance to the PWF, PWT, and SCCT: volition (Duffy, Diemer, & Jadidian, 2011; Duffy, Diemer, Perry, Laurenzi, & Torrey, 2012); career adaptability (Savickas & Porfeli, 2012); critical consciousness (Diemer, Rapa, Park, & Perry, 2014);

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This paper is an extract from a keynote presentation prepared for the Career Development Association of New Zealand. Cite as: McIlveen, P. (2016). Effectiveness of Career Development? Ask a Precise Question if You Want a Precise Answer. Keynote paper presented at the Symposium of the Career Development Association of New Zealand, Christchurch, 3 October.

career agency, occupational awareness, social support, work-life balance, and negative career

• utlook (Rottinghaus, Buelow, Matyja, & Schneider,

2011; Rottinghaus, Day, & Borgen, 2005); job search self-efficacy (Hoye & Saks, 2008; Saks, Zikic, & Koen, 2015); and occupational self- efficacy (Rigotti, Schyns, & Mohr, 2008). The effects

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these characteristic adaptations on outcomes are also of interest. The following may be informative as measures of

• utcomes: psychological needs of autonomy,

relatedness, and competence (Van den Broeck, Vansteenkiste, De Witte, Soenens, & Lens, 2010); satisfaction with life (Diener, Emmons, Larsen, & Griffin, 1985); and work engagement (Bakker & Demerouti, 2008; Schaufeli, Bakker, & Salanova, 2006) Critical Ingredients Ingredients critical to effective career interventions include: Workbooks and written exercises; individualised interpretations; world–of- work information; exposure to models of career exploration and decision-making; and building support for career choices and plans (Brown & Ryan Krane, 2000; Brown et al., 2003). One-on-one interventions (e.g., career counselling) are the most effective, followed in order by group/class-based learning, guided exploration

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information resources, and information resources without guidance (Whiston, Brecheisen, & Stephens, 2003). Thus, a comprehensive perspective is required to provide the most effective mix of services: intensive services to individuals in most need through to the least intensive, broadcast of information. Such a mix balances effectiveness and efficiency. One critical ingredient receiving attention in the research literature is working alliance—the relationship between client and counsellor (Horvath & Greenberg, 1989; Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989). In context of scholars articulating the similarities between psychotherapy and career counselling (Bedi, 2004; Blustein, 1987; McIlveen, 2015), the working alliance is regarded as a vital dimension of successful career counselling, just as it is in psychotherapeutic counselling in which improvement in symptoms interacts with working alliance (Falkenström, Granström, & Holmqvist, 2013; Xu & Tracey, 2015). Indeed, research demonstrates that working alliance influences career counselling outcomes (Masdonati, Massoudi, & Rossier, 2009; Masdonati, Perdrix, Massoudi, & Rossier, 2013), which is further revealed in a meta- analysis revealing relationship in the order of r = .3 (Whiston, Rossier, & Barón, 2015). Thus, researchers and practitioners may find benefits in exploring the processes of the working alliance in career counselling, particularly where counselling involves therapeutic methods

• rdinarily associated with symptom management,

such as mindfulness (Hoare, McIlveen, & Hamilton, 2012; Jacobs & Blustein, 2008). Conclusion This paper took a focus on a topic that is unequivocally addressed by career development: un/under-employment and job search. The PWF/PWT and SCCT are ideal for research and interventions for these problems. Ample evidence published in high quality empirical journals demonstrates that career development’s research and practices are unquestionably relevant. Only a sample is cited here. Other topics vital in the everyday lives of people could have been chosen to demonstrate the volumes of evidence that is available in the literature. What matters most is that policy leaders and politicians are made aware of the existence of the evidence in the research literature and how it can be put to good use to guide their planning and decision-making. Author: Dr Peter McIlveen is an associate professor and leads the Australian Collaboratory for Career, Employability, and Learning for Living (ACCELL), at the University of Southern Queensland. ACCELL is a multidisciplinary team with masters and doctoral candidates researching employability, adaptive capacity, and career development learning. Correspondence: Peter McIlveen; University of Southern Queensland; Toowoomba, QLD, 4350; Australia. peter.mcilveen@usq.edu.au; +61 7 46312375

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This paper is an extract from a keynote presentation prepared for the Career Development Association of New Zealand. Cite as: McIlveen, P. (2016). Effectiveness of Career Development? Ask a Precise Question if You Want a Precise Answer. Keynote paper presented at the Symposium of the Career Development Association of New Zealand, Christchurch, 3 October.

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