CHAPTER THREE The Psychological Approach: A Profusion of Theories - - PowerPoint PPT Presentation

CHAPTER THREE

The Psychological Approach: A Profusion

• f Theories

Psychology

 The scientific study of mind and behavior.  Uses the scientific method as a means of

gaining knowledge.

 Investigates internal mental events such as

reasoning, language, and memory.

 Also investigates external behaviors such as

talking, walking, and grasping.

The Scientific Method

 A theory is a general understanding of the

world that organizes a set of facts and aids us in understanding how the world works.

 A hypothesis is a more specific statement

about the world that is frequently derived from a hypothesis and can be tested.

Experiments

 Scientists use experiments to test hypotheses.  An experiment must have at least two

variables.

 The independent variable is manipulated by

the researcher.

 The dependent variable is measured by the

researcher.

Experiments

 An experiment must also have at least two

conditions or groups.

 The experimental group receives the

independent variable.

 The control group does not.

Experiments – An Example

 Theory: Practice facilitates problem solving.  Hypothesis: Doing logic problems before being

tested will increase scores on a subsequent logic test.

Experiments – An Example

 Experimental

group:

• 20 participants.
• Allowed to practice

solving problems for 10 minutes.

• Then given a test

problem.

• Independent

variable is practice.

 Control group:

• 20 participants.
• Not allowed to

practice.

• Given the same test

problem.

• Dependent variable

is scores on the test.

Experiments – An Example

 Scores on the

dependent variable for the two groups are compared.

 If test scores in the

experimental group are significantly higher, then the hypothesis is supported.

Voluntarism

 Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) is founder.  View that the mind is made up of elements.  The elements are assembled into wholes

through an act of will.

 Influenced by atoms and molecules of

chemistry.

Introspection

 Method used by the voluntarists and other

early psychologists.

 Means “inner looking.” Consists of subjective

self-report of mental states.

 Fraught with difficulties.

Structuralism

 Edward Titchener (1867-1927) considered

founder.

 Shares the beliefs that mind is made of

elements and use of introspection with voluntarism.

 But viewed element combination occurring

through passive mechanical laws.

Functionalism

 Closely associated with William James (1842-

1910).

 Focus is on mental processes and functions

rather than elements.

 Idea of a stream of consciousness. Thought is

flowing and changing, not static.

Gestalt Psychology

 Contributors include Wertheimer (1880-1943),

Kohler (1887-1967), and Koffka (1886-1941).

 View that mind consists of wholes that are

more than the sum of their parts, described as a gestalt.

 Method was phenomenology, a subjective

description of an external stimulus.

Laws of Perceptual Organization

 Parts group together

based on their relationships.

 Parts that are (a)

proximal, (b) similar, and form (c) closed or (d) good figures tend to go together.

Insight Learning

 Initial attempts to solve a problem fail.  Problem is put aside for some time.  Solution occurs rapidly, perhaps through

unconscious processes, and is then verified.

Kohler’s chimp incubates on a problem.

Psychoanalytic Psychology



Established by Sigmund Freud (1856-1939).



Mind is made up of “mini-minds” that compete for control.



Three states of consciousness:

1.

Conscious

2.

Preconscious

3.

Unconscious

Psychoanalytic Psychology



In addition, three primary mental structures:

1.

• Id. Runs on the

pleasure principle.

2.

• Superego. Runs on

the idealistic principle.

3.

• Ego. Runs on the

reality principle.

Behaviorism

 The mind of an organism (O) is a “Black Box.” It

cannot be studied.

 Focus is instead on behaviors or responses (R).  Responses can be controlled through stimuli (S).

Types of Learning

 Classical conditioning:

• Unconditioned stimulus

(US).

• Unconditioned response

(UR).

• Conditioned stimulus

(CS).

• Conditioned response

(CR).

 Operant conditioning:

• Reinforcement.
• Punishment.

Interdisciplinary Crossroads: Studying Grouping Quantitatively

 Kubovy and Wagemans (1995) showed six

lattice types to observers.

 They reported which way the dots grouped.  The likelihood of grouping was plotted as a

function of the distances between dots.

 The resulting attraction function showed an

exponential increase.