Aquaculture needs you! How solid science is needed by the - - PowerPoint PPT Presentation

Aquaculture needs you!

Ronald W. Hardy, Director Aquaculture Research Institute

How solid science is needed by the aquaculture industry

Tuna farming in Mexico – example of poor aquaculture practice

Topics to be covered

• Global aquaculture – scale and scope
• Aquaculture’s contribution to the food supply

– Three examples: salmon, tilapia, shrimp

• Challenges associated with aquaculture’s growth

– Water resources – Feed resources

• Science – academics & critical thinking

– Science-based and value-based approaches – Scientists must strive to improve aquaculture, being critical is not enough – Examples of current research in fish nutrition

Global Aquaculture

Marine net pen Shrimp ponds Shellfish

Examples of aquaculture production systems

Tuna farm in Mexico Idaho trout farm

Scale and scope of aquaculture

• Currently a $97 billion global business growing at 9% per year

worldwide

• Supplies half of fishery products (traditional fishing supplies the
• ther half)
• Major source of income and foreign exchange for many

countries

• Major source of protein for over 3 billion people
• Average per capita fish consumption is 16.7 kg/yr (~37 pounds);

US is half of this average

• In Bangladesh, for example, 8% of diet may be fish and the rest

consists almost entirely of rice

World fisheries landings and aquaculture production

50 100 150 200 250

Aquaculture Catch for food Fish meal

Estimated

Million metric tons

Leading aquaculture producing countries

Countries Production, metric tons (2006) China 34,429,122 India 3,123,135 Viet Nam 1,657,727 Thailand 1,385,801 Indonesia 1,292,899 Bangladesh 892,049 Chile 802,410 Japan 733,891 Norway 708,780 Philippines 623,369 United States ~500,000

Aquaculture production by country

10000000 20000000 30000000 40000000 China India Viet Nam Thailand Indonesia Bangladesh Chile Japan Norway Philippines USA

MMT

Aquaculture production by species groups

2,000,000 4,000,000 6,000,000 8,000,000 10,000,000 12,000,000

metric tons

Our global food supply

PRODUCTS Million metric tons

Cereals 1,886 Sugar crops 1,580 Root and oilseed crops 1, 271 Fruits, vegetables and others 1,358

TOTAL PLANT PRODUCTS 6,095

Milk and eggs 675 Meat and meat products 303

TOTAL ANIMAL PRODUCTS 978

Fisheries landings 64 Aquaculture 51

ALL TERRESTRIAL FOOD 7,188

Comparison of global food sources

US meat and fish consumption (pounds/person/yr)

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 Chicken Beef Pork Turkey Fish Lamb

per capita consumption

Chicken Beef Pork Turkey Fish Lamb

Top ten consumed seafood in the USA (pounds/person)

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

Tuna 3.5 Shrimp 3.4 Shrimp 3.7 Shrimp 4.0 Shrimp 4.2 Shrimp 4.1 Shrimp 4.4 Shrimp 3.2 Tuna 2.9 Tuna 3.1 Tuna 3.4 Tuna 3.1 Tuna 3.1 Tuna 2.9 Pollock 1.6 Salmon 2.0 Salmon 2.0 Salmon 2.2 Salmon 2.2 Salmon 2.4 Salmon 2.0 Salmon 1.5 Pollock 1.2 Pollock 1.1 Pollock 1.7 Pollock 1.57 Pollock 1.5 Pollock 1.6 Catfish 1.1 Catfish 1.1 Catfish 1.1 Catfish 1.1 Catfish 1.1 Catfish 1.0 Tilapia 1.0 Cod 0.8 Cod 0.6 Cod 0.7 Cod 0.6 Tilapia 0.8 Tilapia 0.9 Catfish 0.97 Clams 0.5 Clams 0.5 Crab 0.6 Crab 0.6 Cod 0.6 Crab 0.6 Crab 0.66 Crab 0.4 Crab 0.4 Clams 0.5 Tilapia 0.6 Crab 0.6 Cod 0.6 Cod 0.5 Flatfish 0.4 Flatfish 0.4 Tilapia 0.5 Clams 0.5 Clams 0.5 Clams 0.4 Clams 0.4 Scallops 0.3 Tilapia 0.4 Flatfish 0.4 Scallops 0.3 Scallops 0.3 Scallops 0.3 Scallops 0.3 Tilapia 0.3

Farmed species in red

US Fish Consumption (pounds/person/yr)

Aquaculture production driven by demand for seafood

• Landings from capture fisheries peaked

– Stocks have been overfished

• Costs to grow fish declined

– More efficient feeds – Shorter production cycles – Lower losses to disease

• Rising incomes in developing countries

– Eating more fish

• Shifts in eating habits in developed countries

– Healthful eating - beef consumption decreased, fish consumption increased

Research enabled aquaculture growth thus far

• Nutrition: estimates of dietary nutritional requirements of

salmon and catfish

–

• Dr. John Halver (my professor) developed a test diet to which all vitamins & amino acids

could be added in excess except one being studied – One vitamin at a time was added at various levels and fish response (growth, enzyme activity, etc.) was measured – This was a major advance in fish feed formulation and production

• Life-cycles of new species were closed

– Farmers no longer relied on wild fish to stock farms – Researchers developed techniques to spawn fish and rear tiny larvae

• Disease prevention

– Vaccines to prevent fish diseases – Development of specific genetic markers for disease resistance

Further research needed for aquaculture to grow

• Feeds and nutrition

– Complete elimination of marine resources in feeds – Determine dietary nutrient requirements for fish other than salmonids – Increased nutrient retention

• Must close life cycles of species such as tuna

– Been done in Japan and Australia – Combination of reproductive physiology and larval rearing

• Disease prevention

– Improved detection of pathogens in fish, esp. broodstock – Biosecurity, especially in recirculation systems

Three top farmed fish consumed in the USA

• Salmon (freshwater & marine)

– Mostly Atlantic salmon (native to north Atlantic ocean) – Big producers are Norway, Chile, Scotland, Canada

• Shrimp (marine)

– Primarily Pacific white shrimp and tiger shrimp – Thailand, Indonesia, Ecuador, Mexico supply US markets

• Tilapia (freshwater)

– Several species – mainly Nile tilapia – China, Indonesia, Philippines, Thailand, Mexico, Costa Rico supply US market

Salmon farming

• Expanded greatly over the past 20 years
• Salmon is affordable and available year round
• Economic boon to coastal communities
• Farmed salmon is harvested

and in stores in 48 hrs

• Quality is consistently high

Effect of salmon aquaculture for the consumer

• Quantity of salmon has tripled(capture + farmed)

– Farmed is 1.5x of global supply and 8x the supply of wild salmon for ‘white-tablecloth’ (not canned or smoked)

• Consumer intake of omega-3 fatty acids increased

– Positive effects on CVD, neonatal development, other conditions

• Levels of contaminants in farmed salmon

– Essentially zero mercury – Very low levels of PCBs and other persistent organic pollutants

Salmon destined for fillet market (not canned or smoked)

500000 1000000 1500000 2000000 Wild Chinook Wild Coho Wild Sockeye Total Farmed

Million metric tons

Challenges for salmon farming

• Maintain healthful levels of omega-3 fatty acids while

lowering fish oil levels in feeds

– Need new sources of omega-3 fatty acids besides fish oil

• Improve biosecurity, especially in Chile and China

– Chile production reduced ~90% by a virus (ISA) imported from Norway – New vaccine for ISA, plus new rules on fish transfers

• Reduce environmental impacts

– Metabolic and fecal wastes from farming that cause local impacts below pens

• n the sea floor

– Escapees that could colonize natural salmon streams and compete with native salmon stocks

Shrimp farming

• Two major species of farmed shrimp

– Litopenaeus vannamei (Pacific white shrimp – Pacific coast, Ecuador to Mexico) – smaller size (30-50 count) – Penaeus monodon (tiger shrimp – Asia) – larger size (7-12 count)

• Shrimp farming occurs in salt/brackish-water ponds

in coastal areas

• Viral diseases are a huge problem for shrimp farmers

– Associated with poor water quality and overcrowding – Pacific shrimp are less susceptible than tiger shrimp

• Asian shrimp farmers switched to Pacific shrimp over

the past few years

Farmed shrimp production (Pacific white shrimp)

500000 1000000 1500000 2000000 2500000 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

Metric tons

Switchover to Litopenaeus vannamai in Asia

Shrimp farming

• Farmed shrimp have the highest value of any

aquaculture production species group

• Shrimp are available year round and are relatively

inexpensive

• Shrimp farming has transitioned from large ponds to

intensively managed smaller ponds

– Higher feed inputs and intensive water quality management – Productivity increased from 300 kg/hectare to 12,000+ kg/hectare

• Industry reduced dependence on wild broodstock

– Able to rear shrimp broodstock to maturation with high reproductive performance – This allows genetic improvement and production of specific pathogen-free post-larvae for stocking – (natural progression – needed for many other species)

Tilapia aquaculture

• Tilapia are native to Africa – many species
• Now raised around the globe

– Major food source in food-deficit and developing countries – Grown in tropical or semi-tropical areas (also in geothermal water in Idaho)

• Have digestive system similar to a pig or chicken

– Post-juveniles grow well on all-plant diet – So do fry but growers use fish meal–based diets

• Yield of edible fillet is 32-33% of live weight

– Compares to 50% for salmon, trout or shrimp – Good potential to recover and utilize processing byproduct

• Good candidate for organic production

Tilapia grown in geothermal water in Idaho

Farmed tilapia production 1987-2007

US consumption of tilapia

50000 100000 150000 200000 250000 300000 350000 400000 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006

metric tons

Why has tilapia production grown so much?

• Demand for white-flesh fish cannot be met from wild

catch

– Tilapia tastes bland (not fishy) – No bones in fillets

• Tilapia consume low-protein, high grain feeds
• Tilapia are a tough fish

– Disease resistant – Tolerate high water temperatures and low dissolved oxygen levels in water (can’t handle cold) – Grow at high densities

• Tilapia have a short life cycle
• Tilapia are inexpensive to produce

Tilapia products have increased in quality

Processing and trimming is done by hand Frozen fillets have a fresh appearance

Improvements in packaging

Individually Quick Frozen (IQF) fillets in re-sealable packages

Development of breaded, ready-to-cook products

Tilapia (June 2007, Tesco, UK)

• $18 US per kg whole fish!!!!

Tilapia Orange Juice

Even skins are used to make tilapia leather

Let’s talk about science now

• Aquaculture – not a scientific discipline
• Aquaculture is the application of a range of

scientific disciplines and technology to grow aquatic organisms

• Disciplines required by aquaculture include:

– Biochemistry/molecular biology/metabolomics/etc. – General fish biology/life history – Physiology/reproduction/endocrinology – Genetics and breeding – Fish diseases/microbiology/virology/parasitology

Key issues in fish nutrition

• Replacing marine ingredients in fish feeds

– Conservation or enhancement hatcheries – Commercial aquaculture – Aquarium trade, public aquariums

• Feed costs are 50-60% of operating costs of fish

farms and key determinate of profitability

• Environmental effects of fish farms totally

depend on feed efficiency and nutrient retention

Global fish feed production

5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 2015

Feed Production (mmt)

Amount of fish meal (gold) used in aquafeeds has also increased

0.000 5.000 10.000 15.000 20.000 25.000 30.000 35.000 40.000 45.000 50.000 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 2015

Global fish meal production is static

• In 1970s, >90% of fish meal was used in poultry and

swine feeds

• Today, fish feeds use 65% of annual fish meal

production

– Use in poultry and swine feeds is about 32%

• Use in fish feeds has displaced use in livestock and

poultry feeds

• Except for higher recovery and utilization of seafood

processing waste, FM production will not increase

Good news – FM levels in feeds are lower

• The percentage of fish meal used in

fish/shrimp feeds has gone down dramatically

– More information on use of alternative protein sources

• Amino acid digestibility
• Appropriate dietary levels

– More precise feed formulation – Wider range of supplemental, feed-grade amino acids

• Now, economics favors reducing fish meal

levels even more

Fishmeal and soymeal prices (USD/mt)

200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 Dec 02 Dec 03 Dec 04 Dec 05 Dec 06 Dec 07 Dec 08 Dec 09 Fishmeal Soymeal

Bad news – total FM use is higher

• Production of species requiring high protein feed is

way up

– Increase offset improvements in lowering the percentages FM in feeds for various species

• Increasing intensification of freshwater pond

production in Asia

– use of feeds containing fish meal for carp, tilapia, etc.

• Conversion from farm-made feeds to pelleted feeds,

requiring fish meal

– Especially for marine fish in Asia

Fish meal use in salmon feeds

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007

Percent FM in feeds Tonnes FM used (x104)

Fish meal use in shrimp feeds

20 40 60 80 100 120 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007

Percent FM in feeds Tonnes FM used (x104)

Fish meal use in carp feeds

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007

Percent FM in feeds Tonnes FM used (x104)

Sustainable feeds - progress to date

• Fish meal levels in feeds average half of levels

used a decade ago

• Fish oil levels also down in feeds for salmon,

trout and marine species (major users)

• Researchers around the world are actively

testing/developing sustainable alternative protein sources

• New sources of EPA and DHA being developed

But….challenges remain

• Growing world population
• Increasing demand for fish
• Static or declining capture fisheries
• FM and FO levels in feeds must be reduced

further

– Aquaculture production will continue to increase – So will fish feed production

• The easy bit is done

– Not difficult to reduce FM levels by half – Lowering fish meal and fish oil levels further will require a deeper understanding

• f biochemistry and physiology of fish as well as nutritional requirements

We’ve hit a wall

• Not difficult to produce omnivorous fish species w/o

fish meal in feeds (tilapia, carp, catfish)

• Possible to produce salmon/trout using feeds w/o

fish meal but…

– Sometimes need animal protein (poultry byproduct meal, etc.) – Best plant protein concentrates are used in human foods - costly

• Problem: balancing all amino acids in all-plant feed

doesn’t make the nutritional value of the feed equivalent to fish meal-based feed

– What other nutrients or biologically active compounds are in fish meal and missing from plant proteins? – Vice-versa with plant proteins

Other challenges with fish feeds

• Maintain healthful levels of omega-3 fatty acids while

lowering fish oil levels in feeds

– Need to understand the dynamics and drivers of long-chain PUFA deposition in fish

• Reduce metabolic and fecal wastes

– Plant ingredients have more fiber and non-soluble carbohydrates (NSPs) that are indigestible – Substituting plant proteins for FM alters tissue protein metabolism

• Maintain economic FCRs

– Cost of feed compared to value of products

Critical research needs in fish nutrition

• Nutritional Requirements

– We only have estimates for salmonids, catfish, carp and shrimp – No clue on the other 190 species being farmed

• Ingredients, Formulation, and Processing

– As levels of fish meal and oil are reduced, we lose essential amino acids, vitamins & minerals (especially phosphorus) – As levels of plant-derived proteins increase, we add fiber, non-soluble polysaccarides, anti-nutrients, phytate-phosphorus and create an imbalance of essential amino acids – This increases the environmental impacts of fish farming

• Digestion, Metabolism, and Utilization

– Amazing how little we know about intestinal transporters, nutrient signaling, energy allocation, drivers of muscle growth, etc.

Next step – integration of disciplines

• Gene expression, proteomics and metabolomics

– Determine how nutrients affect metabolic pathways, muscle growth, energy allocation, immune function, etc. – Use high-throughput data generation coupled with new computational software & data mining tools for pathway building and developing large biomolecular networks

• Combine molecular approach with cellular and physiological

response data to understand effects of nutrients and diet components

• Selective breeding using marker-based selection

– Develop strains of fish have improved performance when fed plant- based feeds – Use molecular tools to follow improvements and avoid co-selection for undesirable traits

Progress to date (trout, my lab)

• “All-plant protein” trout feeds

– Developed over 6 years of experimentation – Growth of trout is equivalent to fishmeal-based feeds, but only with selected family lines from our breeding program – Sensory analysis shows no effect on fillet quality – Mercury is nearly undetectable; POPs lower than English muffin – Feed cost is in the ball-park, so feed cost per unit gain is close

• BUT…protein retention lower than on FM diets

– Higher loss of nitrogen to the environment

• Successful all-plant trout diets were less successful for Atlantic

salmon

– Growth reduced and feed conversion ratio higher – However, this was not with selected strains of Atlantic salmon

What might be the cause of lower protein retention?

• Mismatched amino acid profiles

– Plant proteins are deficient in EAA, such as soy (MET), corn (LYS), wheat (ARG) – Some have high levels of branched chain amino acids, like blood meal

(isoleucine) and corn gluten (leucine)

• Other differences

– Plant proteins contain phytoestrogens, phytic acid, other antinutrients – Plant proteins lack taurine, andogens and bone minerals – Animal proteins are mainly muscle, and thus are structurally complex, whereas

plant proteins are not

– FM takes longer to digest and appear in the blood compared to plant proteins

How can genomics help us understand the effects of these differences?

• Tissue culture (mouse liver cells) show altered mTOR

expression when cells are given the amino acid leucine

• Studies showing elevated expression of stress genes in

trout when soy proteins are fed (liver again)

• Researchers in Scotland report BOTH higher protein

synthesis rates and degradation rates when fish are fed soy protein compared to FM. WHY??

Study to compare FM with soy protein

• Design soy-based feeds with exaggerated amino acid

imbalances (branched-chain amino acids)

• Look at expression of genes that are central players in

metabolism

– mTOR (mammalian target of rapamycin) which is the central component

• f a complex signaling network regulating cell growth and proliferation

– REDD1, which indicates metabolic stress

• Others that indicate metabolic shifts

– carnitylpalmitate transferase – acetyl CoA dehydrogenase – PPARα, PPARβ. PPARγ – glucose-6-dehydrogenase, fructose 1,6-biphosphate, pyruvate carboxylase – TNFα (more immune-related but responding to nutritional input)

Simplified schematic of TOR cascade

TOR expression responds to a variety of inputs

• Feeding FM or soy diets with exactly the same AA profile leads

to different TOR expression

• REDD1 is one factor that regulates TOR cascade
• REDD1 expression is elevated with cellular stresses, like

hypoxia, energy depletion

• Not known how dietary AA communicate to REDD1 or any

components of TOR cascade

• However, both respond to differences in dietary protein source,

at least at the transcriptional level

Regulation of TOR cascade in cells: possibly related phytoestrogens in soy proteins

REDD1 stimulates TSC complex and blocks mTOR

Outcome of our genomics work so far

• Identified genes involved in protein synthesis and degradation

in trout (anabolic and catabolic pathways in muscle)

• Measure gene expression for elongation and desaturation of

fatty acids – important for alternate dietary lipid work

• Gene expression associated with bone mineralization and

phosphorus status

– Important as we reduce fishmeal in feeds

• Carbohydrate (glucose) metabolism
• Immune response factors
• But…these are in isolated systems in known pathways and do

not show interactions among pathways or systems

Next level of effort - pyrosequencing

• High-throughput transcriptome evaluation
• Construct target-specific transcriptome libraries
• Use novel software to construct, expand and analyze pathways

from gene expression data

• Identify cellular processes affected by

– Diet – Alternate ingredient – Nutrient level for requirement studies

• Major advance is that this software identifies interactions

among isolated systems or pathways affected by diet or treatment, not just the ones we know to look at

– Developed from medicine and pharmacology

Nutrient requirements

• For a century, research has been based on “one nutrient – one

disease” cause-effect connection

– All are short latency, discrete conditions affecting a single tissue – Rickets/osteomalacia (vit D), beriberi (thiamin), pellegra (niacin)

• Dietary requirements (MDRs) are minimum intake to prevent

deficiency signs

– No reason why intake to prevent short-latency diseases prevents long- latency conditions

• Intake needed to prevent “modern” diseases likely higher than

MDR

– Increased vitamin D intake associated with lower risk of diabetes, hypertension, various cancers, multiple sclerosis and periodontal disease, to name a few

Nutrient requirements…

• Now recognized that many nutrients act through multiple

mechanisms (pleiotropic) and affect multiple pathways and processes

– Vitamin D is classic example

• This calls for a re-assessment of nutrient intake

recommendations (fish, animals & humans) which will result in significantly higher dietary intake recommendations

– Based on responses of multiple tissues and organs – Could use gene expression but better to use pathway analysis from transcriptome data to discover new relationships and responses – Must couple with physiological and perfomance assessment

• Weight gain
• Enzyme activity
• Stress response
• Immune function

Fish oil use in feeds

• Challenge – replace fish oil levels in feeds and

maintain healthful omega-3 levels in fillets

• Progress to date (trout)

– Developing ‘phase-feeding’ protocols to lower total use of fish oils

• Use plant oil during growth phase, end with fish oil to increase EPA and DHA

– Evaluating trout lines to see if differences exist in fatty acid deposition rates and gene expression that could be used in selective breeding – Looking at effects of different dietary fatty acid ratios on metabolism and immune responses

18:3n-3 18:4n-3 18:2n-6 18:1n-9 20:4n-3 18:3n-6 20:3n-6 18:2n-9 20:2n-9 20:5n-3 22:5n-3 24:5n-3 20:4n-6 20:3n-9 22:6n-3 24:6n-3

Δ6 desaturase Δ5 desaturase

From Fish Nutrition, Ed 3

Biosynthesis of C20 and C22 LC-PUFA from n-3, n-6 and n-9 precursors

linolenic acid linoleic acid

• leic acid

Docosohexaenoic acid (DHA) Eicosapentaenoic- acid (EPA)

∆6-Desaturase expression in trout family lines

Delta 6 Desaturase

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 CX99 CX98 CX51 CX53 CX84 CX80 CX78 CX82 CX55 CX72 CX71 CX75 CX92 CX97 CX77 Family Relative Expression

Canola oil diet

Delta 6 Desaturase

5 10 15 20 25 30 CX55 CX53 CX51 CX99 CX84 CX72 CX78 CX71 CX98 CX75 CX80 CX77 CX92 CX97 CX82 Family Relative Expression

Fish oil diet

∆5-Desaturase expression in trout family lines

Delta 5 Desaturase

5 10 15 20 25 CX-71 CX-51 CX-53 CX-99 CX-55 CX-75 CX-98 CX-80 CX-97 CX-72 CX-92 CX-82 CX-77 CX-84 CX-78 Family Relative Expression

Canola oil diet

Delta 5 Desaturase

2 4 6 8 10 12 14 CX-99 CX-51 CX-97 CX-53 CX-55 CX-77 CX-75 CX-92 CX-98 CX-71 CX-72 CX-80 CX-84 CX-78 CX-82 Famiily Relative Expression

Fish oil diet

Back to landings and aquaculture production

50 100 150 200 250

Aquaculture Catch for food Fish meal Million metric tons

The past and the future

• Aquaculture production increased by 10x over the

past 20 years (1990-2010)

– Lifetime of undergraduates in the audience – Aquaculture production increased 10x

• What will aquaculture look like when today’s infants

are undergrads in 2030?

– Just to keep up with population growth and per capita intake will require production to more than double – Feed production will also have to double – Freshwater production – cannot double freshwater resources but maybe increase productivity of existing freshwater systems – Marine and offshore aquaculture? Cost and environmental issues – Recirculation systems? Cost and efficiency

FM use will not be a problem in feeds

• Single-cell bacteria/yeast products

– Bioprotein from Norway produced on methane

• Duckweed protein concentrate

– 80mt/hectare/yr of duckweed – Native species everywhere – No competition with food or crop production – Little water consumption – Protein concentrate is 65% protein and 86% digestible to fish

• Recovered seafood processing waste

Skills needed to advance aquaculture

• Strong background in integrative biology

– Physiology – Genetics and molecular biology – Nutrition and biochemisty – Diseases and immunology

• Critical and creative thinking skills
• Cultural and sociological perspectives
• Value-based and science-based approaches

– Values (personal, cultural) are crucial elements of our decisions – Our cultural values are not always important to other cultures – Our science is, however, persuasive

• Aquaculture is here to stay – use science to make it better

Biggest Fish Farm in the World Lake Llanquique, Chile. The End

Progress over the past decade in finfish aquaculture

0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 1.20 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 FI:FO Year

Fish-In to Fish-Out Ratios for Fed Species

Progress over the past decade finfish aquaculture

0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 1.20 1.40 1.60 1.80 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 FI:FO Year

Fish-In to Fish-Out Ratios for Fed Species

Fish oil is the major driver of FI:FO ratio for salmon

2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50%

% Fish Oil Inclusion Fish I:Fish Out Ratio % Fishmeal Inclusion FM Inclusion where FCR 1.3 and FO 16% FO Inclusion where FCR 1.3 and FM 24% b

Global food supply - Aquatic

Category - Aquatic Million metric tons

Marine landings (food only) 53.9 Freshwater landings 10.1

TOTAL CAPTURE FISHERIES 64

Marine aquaculture 23.1 Freshwater aquaculture 27.9

TOTAL AQUACULTURE 51.0

Wild harvest marine plants 1.8 Aquaculture marine plants 15.7

TOTAL MARINE PLANTS 17.5 ALL AQUATIC PRODUCTS 132.5

Aquaculture production in the USA

Species Metric tons production Channel catfish 276,364 Rainbow trout 27,561 Crawfish 16,788 Atlantic salmon 9,420 Tilapia 7,820 Hybrid striped bass 500 Yellow perch 50

Efficiency compared to swine & poultry

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Salmon Trout Shrimp Chicken Swine Wild fish

Feed conversion ratio (feed fed/live weight gain)

Efficiency compared to livestock & poultry

10 20 30 40 50

Protein retention (% of dietary protein used for growth)