APES Semester in review 2019, The year everyone gets a 5! - - PowerPoint PPT Presentation

APES Semester in review

2019, The year everyone gets a 5!

SCORE!!!!

 There is no longer a penalty on the

test for guessing – that means that your multiple choice score is simply based on the total number of correct answers

Multiple Choice Questions

 CAREFULLY read the stem with

EACH of the answer choices

 Eliminate answers you know won’t

work

 Go with your gut! Select the

answer that seems to be the best and LEAVE IT ALONE!

 Represents 60% of your exam.

Strategy 1 – Pace Yourself

 You have 90 minutes for each

section

 Slow down and answer the

questions you know the answers to!

 If you think you can use process of

elimination to answer tougher questions, do so.

Strategy 2 – Pass Strategy

 1. Easiest questions first  2. Medium tough questions next.  3. Make sure you fill in the correct

bubble!!!!!

Strategy 3 - POE

 Process Of Elimination  Use what you already know to

eliminate nonanswers

Strategy 4 – Aggressive Guessing

 Again, there is no penalty for

guessing, but guess wisely

Strategy 5 – Word Associations

 After reading the MC stem, use POE

to remove non answers.

 Then, use the remaining choices but

look at the stem again and look for terms associated with the stem

Strategy 6 – ID Question Types

 Watch out for TRAP words like

EXCEPT/NOT/LEAST

 10% of MC questions are of this

type

 Question context determines correct

answer

Overthinking = Wrong Answer

 Take questions at face value  Do not “read into” the question!

APES semester in review

2019, The year everyone gets a 5!

Human population growth

 More than 7 billion people currently  last 25 yrs population grew by 2 billion  projected that population will be 10 billion by 2050  increase pop → increase need for resources

Global Atmospheric Changes

Global Warming

⚫ CO2 produced from fossil fuel burning acts like

a blanket around the earth.

⚫ Plants take CO2 out of the atmosphere through

photosynthesis

 6CO2 +6H2O => 602 + C6H12O6

Ozone depletion

⚫ Chemicals released from the surface of the

earth destroy our ozone shield.

⚫ No stratospheric ozone, no protection from the

UV rays of the sun.

Loss of Biodiversity

 Habitat destruction leads to a loss of

many species starting with the plants

 exact # of species lost is unknown

because not all species are identified

 strong ecosystems need biodiversity  1959-1980 25% of all prescription drugs

from natural resources

 Wild species keep domestic species

vigorous

 Aesthetics

Trophic Relationship

Food webs



Trophic levels * producers * herbivores *primary carnivores

Biomass and Biomass Pyramid

All biomass gets its energy from the sun Only 10% of energy from one trophic

level moves to the next trophic level

Energy released is high potential energy

molecules (like glucose) then converted to low potential energy molecules (like carbon dioxide) * concept of eating lower on the biomass pyramid

Relationships

 Mutualism

* Flowers & insects

Predator/prey

* Rabbit & Lynx

Competition

* Birds

habitat vs. niche

Limiting Factors Temperature, light, oxygen, carbon dioxide, precipitation

 Optimum levels  Limits of Tolerance  Range of Tolerance

Synergistic effects – The interaction of two or more factors is greater than the sum of the effects when each acts

• alone. Example: pollution and disease

Energy

 Energy is measured in calories

⚫ Calorie – amount of heat needed to

raise 1 gram of water 1 degree Celsius.

⚫ Kilocalorie = 1,000 calories

 1st law of thermodynamics

⚫ Energy cannot be created nor

destroyed, only change forms (light to chemical)

 2nd law of thermodynamics

⚫ Energy transformation increases

disorder (entropy) of the universe.

⚫ Heat is the lowest grade of energy.

Chemistry

 pH scale

⚫ Base/alkaline ⚫ Acid

Carbon cycle

 Moving fossil fuels (which took

millions of years to form) to the atmosphere (in hundreds of years) is a major component of global warming.

 Hydrocarbon fuels to CO2

Nitrogen cycle

 Main reserve in the atmosphere  Living things must get N from

ammonium (NH4) or nitrate (NO3)

 N from the atmosphere must be fixed

Bacteria change N2 into ammonium or

nitrate

Burning fossil fuels

Phosphorus cycle

 Fertilizers contain organic phosphates  Because P is a limiting factor in

aquatic systems, it leads to eutrophication

 The rain forest is very good at

recycling P, except when we cut it down…

element

Main nonliving reservoir

Main living reservoir Other nonliving reservoir Human-induced problem

Carbon C

Atmo CO2 Carbohydrate s (CH2O)n And all

• rganic

molecules

Hydro Carbonate (CO3-2) Bicarbonate (HCO3-) Litho minerals

Global warming Carbon from fossil fuels underground are burned and released into the air as CO2

Nitrogen N

Atmo N2 Proteins and

• ther N-

containing

• rganic

molecules

Hydro Ammonium NH4+ Nitrate NO3- Nitrite NO2-

Eutrophication Fertilizers contain human-made nitrates that end up in the water

Phos- phorous P

Litho rocks as PO4-3 *no gas phase DNA ATP phospholipids Hydro Phosphate PO4-3 Eutrophication Fertilizers contain human-made phosphates that end up in the water Cutting down rainforest stops recycling of P

Succession - One species gradually replaced by another in an ecosystem

 Primary – new

ecosystem where there were no living things before.

 Secondary- ecosystem

used to be there. Fire, humans clear an area

Mutations

 Mutations are naturally random

events * Normal variation * Chemical * UV * Radiation

 Genetic Trait- only passed down if

an organism reproduces

Why do species change?



Environmental resistance and biotic potential



Selective pressure on mutations



Speciation * creation of a new species based

• n reproductive isolation
• Ex. (Galapagos Finches)

(b) crude birth rate= number birth per 1000 individuals (d) crude death rate= number death per 1000 individuals (r) growth rate = natural increase in population expressed as percent per years (If this number is negative, the population is shrinking.)

The Human Population

Population growth rates

increase population decrease population births ➔ ➔ deaths immigration ➔ ➔ emigration (exit) r = (birth - death)+ (immigration-emigration) immigration = migration of individuals into a population from another area or country emigration = migration of individuals from a population bound for another country

If the growth rate is 2% what is the doubling time? Population doubling:

70/rate =70/2% =35 years to double

 Total fertility= avg. # of children born per

woman

 For developed countries = 2.1  For developing countries = 2.6  Fertility of 2.0= replacement level

⚫ Under 2.0 = shrinking population ⚫ Over 2.0 = growing pop.

 Earth’s water supply

Water

Water Facts

 The primary use for fresh water in

U.S. is for agriculture.

 In our homes, we use the most

fresh water to wash, clean and flush.

 Virtual Water Use

Human effects on the Hydrologic Cycle

The Hydrologic cycle

The Ogallala Aquifer

Exploitation of an aquifer

Three Gorges Dam in China

 China needs to meet the

growing demand for energy

 Huge environmental impact  Hundreds of thousands of people

will be displaced (not to mention the ecosystems which will be flooded)

Protection of Biodiversity and Ecosystems

• Threatened – if the trend continues,

the species will be endangered.

• Endangered – if the trend continues,

the species will go extinct.

Coal-several (400) hundred year supply

Oil- about a decade until supplies peak

Natural Gas – at least a 50 year supply in the United States

Fossil Fuels

OPEC organization of petroleum exporting countries (Mid-east countries mainly)

Energy Facts

 We get 50% of our crude oil from

foreign sources

 Alaska pipeline built to help

increase production of domestic crude oil

 Types of coal:  Peat (not coal) → Lignite (brown coal) →

Bituminous coal (soft coal with high sulfur)

→ Anthracite (hard coal with low sulfur)

Oil: The Most Important Fossil Fuel in the American Economy

Environmental Consequences

• 1. photochemical smog,

particulates, acid precipitation, carbon dioxide, spills

Coal

 fossil fuel with largest

source of carbon dioxide and greatest quantity of contaminants, large volume

• f waste, acid precipitation

Natural Gas



produces the least air pollutants of all the fossil fuels Water Pollution from Hydrofracking!

Pros: No CO2 emissions, no particulate emissions Cons: Radiation can lead to damaged DNA, costs, radioactive waste, thermal pollution

Basically- the splitting of uranium’s nucleus gives off heat that can be used to boil water and turn a turbo generator to create electricity. Naturally occurring Uranium is mined.

Nuclear Power

Nuclear important facts

 Fusion- the combination of 2 atoms

to form a larger atom

 Fission- splitting an atom  Nuclear Regulatory Commission is

the US governmental Agency that regulates nuclear power plants

 Radioisotope= unstable radioactive

isotope

 VERY expensive!

How does a Power Plant Operate?

Waste Disposal

All fuel rods are still in cooling ponds at commercial nuclear facilities Proposed site for disposal

• Yucca Mountain in

SE Nevada Concerns: Geological active area, Intrusion of water table, distances for wastes travel, radioactive decay and half-lives

Accidents

 Chernobyl:

⚫ 4/26/86 ⚫ Ukraine ⚫ complete meltdown.

 Three Mile Island:

⚫ 3/28/79 ⚫ Pennsylvania (Harrisburg) ⚫ partial meltdown, no one known to be hurt.

 Fukushima:

⚫ 3/11/2011 ⚫ Japan ⚫ Following earthquake and tsunami, a series of

equipment failures, nuclear meltdowns and radioactive releases.

⚫ Potentially 1/10 the amount of radiation released as

Chernobyl.

Renewable Energy

• Sunlight, wind, falling H2O,

geothermal

• Not fossil fuels, not nuclear

Solar Energy

Passive solar

 Large south-facing windows, heavy drapes

to trap heat at night, interior bricks to trap heat Active solar

 Photovoltaic (PV) panels can be used to

convert the energy from the sun into electricity.

 Electrons from the silicon in the PV panel

are “pushed” through a wire by photons from the sun creating an electric current.

Water Pollution

 Sewage treatment is a common practice  In the 1970’s many cities were still

dumping raw sewage into waterways

 In 1972, the Clean water act provided

funding for upgrading sewage treatment plants

 Currently water ways are the much better  Test for sewage contamination in drinking

H2O → Fecal Coliform test

Dilution and Decay of Degradable, Oxygen-Demanding Wastes in a Stream

Cultural Eutrophication Is Too Much

• f a Good Thing

 Cultural eutrophication

⚫ Nitrates and phosphates from human

sources

⚫ Farms, feedlots, streets, parking lots ⚫ Fertilized lawns, mining sites, sewage plants

 During hot weather or droughts

⚫ Algal blooms ⚫ Increased bacteria ⚫ More nutrients ⚫ Anaerobic bacteria

Solutions: Primary and Secondary Sewage Treatment

Layers of the Atmosphere

 Troposphere

• --------Tropopause

 Stratosphere

• -------- Stratopause

 Mesosphere

• -------- Mesopause

 Thermosphere

• 78% N2
• 20% O2

Global warming

 Global warming occurs when humans

contribute too much of these greenhouse gases leading to a small (1-3 degree C) but significant rise in the global average temperature.

 Analogy – Car on a sunny day

The greenhouse effect is natural and important to deep the earth warm enough for life to exist

Ozone (O3)

Stratospheric ozone is GOOD

⚫ It shields us from the harmful UV A&B rays of

the sun.

⚫ Ozone depletion is the thinning of the

stratospheric ozone shield (mostly over poles)

Tropospheric ozone is BAD

• If we breath it, it causes lung damage
• It is also a greenhouse gas

Major Outdoor Air Pollutants



Primary – direct products of combustion and evaporation



Secondary – when primary pollutants undergo further reactions in atmosphere

1.

Suspended particulate matter (primary)

2.

Volatile Organic Compounds (secondary)

3.

Carbon Monoxide (primary)

4.

Nitrogen Oxides (can be both)

5.

Sulfur Oxides(primary from combustion of coal)

6.

Ozone and other photochemical oxidants (secondary)

Sources of air pollution

 Natural:

• a. Sulfur: Volcanoes, sea spray, microbial
• b. Nitrogen oxides: lightening, forest fires,

microbial

 Anthropogenic (human caused)

• a. Sulfur oxides: coal burning plants, industry,

fossil fuels.

• b. Nitrogen oxides: power plants, industrial fuel

combustion, transportation

• c. Effect areas hundreds of miles from the

source of emissions, generally not the whole globe

Indoor Air Pollutants

 1. Types: benzene, formaldehyde,

radon, cigarette smoke

 2. Sources: off gassing from

furniture, rugs and building materials, dry cleaning, cleaning fluids, disinfectants, pesticides, heaters

 3. Buildings with too many indoor

air pollutants are called “sick buildings” because more than 20% of the people are sick due to

• ccupying the building.