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An overview of lipid nutrition with emphasis on alternative lipid sources in tilapia feeds

Wing-Keong Ng & Cheong-Yew Chong

Fish Nutrition Laboratory School of Biological Sciences Universiti Sains Malaysia Penang, Malaysia

Tilapia aquaculture is one of the fastest growing industry in the world. With increasing intensification of culture systems, complete formulated feeds are required.

Feed Cost versus Tilapia Prices

Source: International Aquafeed, 2000

The critical need to reduce feed costs to match low ex-farm prices of tilapia: Korea: 45% Malaysia: 65% Indonesia: 82% Thailand: 84% The escalating cost of imported feed ingredients such as fish meal, soybean meal, wheat flour, fish oil, etc.

! ! ! ! ! !

Tilapia Feeds

" Protein sources – fish

meal, vegetable proteins.

" Carbohydrates – wheat

flour, corn flour, etc.

" Lipids – fish oil,

vegetable oils.

" Vitamins and minerals. " Binder and other

additives.

Feed formulation depends mainly on fish size

Least-cost formulation for tilapia feeds

Nutrient Limit

Prestarter Starter

Grower Finisher Protein Min 40 30 25 20 Lipid Min 4 4 4 4 Lysine Min 2.04 1.53 1.28 1.02 Total P Max 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 Fiber Max 4 4 4 8

Fishmeal Min

15 12 10 8

Source: Chawalit et al. 2003 (CP group)

Lipids

• source of energy
• source of essential fatty acids
• absorption of fat-soluble vitamins
• cellular & membrane structures
• precursors of hormones
• imparts flavor to diets
• affects diet texture

Lipid levels in tilapia feeds

Hybrid tilapia (O. niloticus x O. aureus)

50 100 150 200 250 5 10 15 20 Dietary lipid level (%) % Weight gain

Minimum Maximum

12

Corn starch vs. corn oil/ CLO/ lard (1:1:1) Chou & Shiau, 1996

Lipid levels in tilapia feeds

Commercial tilapia diets ≤ 5% lipid Tilapia zillii

(El-Sayed & Garling, 1988).

• Dextrin vs. CLO-SBO mix (2, 5, 10, 15% lipid)
• No significant growth increase from 5 -15% lipid

Hybrid tilapia (O. mossambicus x O.aureus)

(Fitzsimmons et al., 1997)

• 3, 6, 8% dietary lipids fed for about 3 months
• No significant difference in growth and FCR

Essential Fatty Acids

Contradictory results as to the requirement of tilapia for n-3 and n-6 PUFA

• require only n-6 PUFA
• require both n-3 and n-6 PUFA
• > 1% 18:3n-3, DHA or EPA depress growth

0.5 to 1% n-3 and n-6 PUFA until further research

Status of fish oil use in aquafeeds

# Aquaculture consumes 70% of the total global supply of marine fish oil # Forecasted to use 97% of fish oil supplies by the year 2010 # Cost of fish oils continue to increase due to: ! stagnation in marine capture fisheries ! human dietary fish oil supplements ! animal livestock industry

1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 1985 1990 1995 2000 Year Metric Tons (x 1000) Aquaculture production on aquafeeds Global fish oil production

Aquaculture production versus Fish oil production

1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 Year 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 Million tons

Fish oil Rapeseed oil Palm oil Soybean oil

World production of fish oil, rapeseed

• il, palm oil and soybean oil

Malaysia 51% Thailand 2% Nigeria 3% Colombia 2% Equador 1% Others 10% Indonesia 30%

World Palm Oil Producers

Source: Oil World

Palm Kernels Crude Palm Oil Palm Kernel Meal Crude Palm Kernel Oil

Palm Fatty Acid Distillates

RBD Palm Olein Bleaching Deodorization Distillation

Lipid source 10.0% Casein 32.0% Gelatin 6.0% Dextrin 27.8% Vitamin mix 3.0% Mineral mix 5.0% CMC 1.5% Cellulose 14.8%

Composition of Semipurified Diets

35% protein and 14.6 kJ/g diet

Dietary Lipid Source Tested:

10% Cod liver oil (CLO) 10% Sunflower oil (SFO) 10% RBD palm olein (RBDPO) 10% Crude palm oil (CPO) 10% Crude palm kernel oil (CPKO) 5% CLO + 5% Palm fatty acid distillate (PFAD)

14:0 16:0 16:1 18:0 18:1 18:2n6 18:3n3 18:4n3 20:1 20:4n6 20:5n3 22:1 22:5n3 22:6n3

Fatty Acid Composition

Cod liver oil (CLO)

14:0 16:0 16:1 18:0 18:1 18:2n6 16:0 16:1 18:0 18:1 18:2n6 18:3n3

Sunflower Oil (SFO) Crude Palm Oil (CPO) Refined Palm Olein (RBDPO)

8:0 10:0 12:0 14:0 16:0 16:1 18:1 18:2n6 14:0 16:0 18:0 18:1 18:2n6

Crude Palm Kernel Oil (CPKO) Palm Fatty Acid Distillate (PFAD)

C L O S F O C P O C P K O C L O : P F A D 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% Type of fatty acids:

Saturates Monoenes n-3 PUFA n-6 PUFA

Fatty acid composition of experimental diets

CLO SFO CPO CPKO CLO:PFAD 10 20 30 40 50

% palmitic acid

% Palmitic acid

Diet Muscle

Muscle palmitic acid (16:0) content of hybrid tilapia fed various dietary lipid and palm oil source

a c a b bc

CLO SFO CPO CPKO CLO:PFAD 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

% l i n

• l

e i c a c i d

% Linoleic acid

Diet Muscle

Muscle linoleic (18:2n-6) content of hybrid tilapia fed various dietary lipid and palm oil source

b a b b c

CLO SFO CPO CPKO CLO:PFAD 5 10 15 20 25 30

% n

• 3

P U F A

% n-3 PUFA

Diet Muscle

Muscle total n-3 PUFA content of hybrid tilapia fed various dietary lipid and palm

• il source

a c b c b

C L O S F O C P O C P K O C L O : P F A D 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% Type of fatty acids:

Saturates Monoenes n-3 PUFA n-6 PUFA

Muscle fatty acid composition of red hybrid tilapia fed various dietary lipids

Conclusion

Feeding diets containing palm oil have NO negative effects on:

• growth and feed utilization efficiency
• fillet yield and other body/organ indices
• fillet and body proximate composition
• blood indices such as hematocrits

Positive aspects of palm oil use in tilapia feeds:

$Lower cost and sustainable

production of palm oil.

$ High oxidative stability thereby

minimizing feed rancidity.

$ Does not significantly increase lipid

content in tilapia fillets.

$ Does not markedly increase the

saturated fatty acids in tilapia fillets.

$ Limits the deposition of less desirable

fatty acids such as linoleic acid (18:2n-6)

! human health concerns. ! fish health concerns. $ Lower PUFA content in fish fillet

minimizes lipid peroxidation of tissue.

$ Possible beneficial effects of natural

antioxidants in crude palm oil.

Positive aspects of palm oil use in tilapia feeds:

% The deposition of desirable fatty acids

such as EPA and DHA is decreased.

Negative aspect of palm oil use in tilapia feeds:

Fish Consumption, Fish Oil, Omega-3 Fatty Acids and Human Health

• There are 2 series of essential fatty acids that cannot

be synthesized by animals or humans and must be supplied in the diet.

• n-6 series derived from linoleic acid (18:2n-6) and n-3

series from linolenic acid (18:3n-3).

• Two derivatives of linolenic acid are physiologically

important compounds for human health:

• EPA = eicosapentaenoic acid (20:5n-3)
• DHA = docosahexaenoic acid (22:6n-3)
• EPA and DHA are abundant in fish oils.

• Death rates from ischemic heart disease (% of all

deaths) in the United States, Denmark and Greenland are 40.4, 34.7 and 5.3, respectively (Dyerberg, 1982).

• The American Heart Association strongly endorses the

use of omega-3 for cardiovascular disease prevention (AHA, 2002).

• Several countries including the World Health

Organization have made formal population-based dietary recommendations:

• 0.3-0.5 g/day of EPA + DHA
• 0.8-1.1 g/day of linolenic acid
• two fatty fish meals per week.

Positive effects of fish and fish oils on cardiovascular diseases

Beneficial Effects of EPA and DHA

% Cardiovascular diseases

% Inflammatory diseases % Arthritis % Multiple sclerosis % Cancer % Skin diseases % Asthma % Normal brain functions

% Strokes

% Nephritis % Lupus erythematosis % Preterm birth % Diabetes mellitus % Improves learning ability % Mood and behavior % Healthy immune system

Data from various scientific sources

F O F O : C P O C P O : L S O C P O S B O

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% Type of fatty acids:

Saturates Monoenes n-3 PUFA n-6 PUFA

Tilapia fillet fatty acid composition after feeding diets with various oils for 5 months

FO FO:CPO CPO:LSO CPO SBO

5 10 15 20 25

% t

• t

a l f a t t y a c i d s

Month

5 6 7 8

Total n-3 fatty acids in tilapia fillet after reverting back to a fish oil-based diet for 3 months * * * * * * * * *

FO FO:CPO CPO:LSO CPO SBO

5 10 15 20 25 30 35

% t

• t

a l f a t t y a c i d s

Month

5 6 7 8

Total n-6 fatty acids in tilapia fillet after reverting back to a fish oil-based diet for 3 months * * * * * * * * * * * *

Conclusions

• The total omega-3 fatty acids in tilapia fillet of fish fed

palm oil-based diets may be markedly increased by:

• formulation strategies – blending with fish oil or

linseed oil.

• reverting back to a fish oil-based diet just before

harvest to manipulate the fatty acid composition.

• Palm oil is a better fish oil substitute compared to

soybean oil as less undesirable omega-6 fatty acids are deposited in fish fillets.

2 4 6

Hardness Chewiness Juiciness Sweetness Sourness

FO FO+CPO LSO+CPO CPO SBO

Sensory evaluation of tilapia fillets fed various dietary lipids

Based on 10 trained sensory panelists from SeaPack Food Ltd, a major seafood processing factory in Malaysia.

2 4 6 8

Aroma Whiteness Appearance Sweetness Sourness Bitterness Hardness Chewiness Juiciness

FO FO+CPO LSO+CPO CPO SBO

Sensory evaluation of tilapia fillets fed various dietary lipids and after 6 months frozen storage

Based on 6 trained sensory panelists from Fisheries Research Institute, Malaysia.

*

$Possible beneficial effects of natural

antioxidants such as vitamin E in crude palm oil when deposited in tilapia fillets.

An added human health benefit of using palm oil in tilapia feeds:

PFAD CPO CPKO SFO CLO

• Vit. E

21% 18% 7% 88% 96% α-T 4054 983 43 582 235 Total

mg/kg

17% 10%

• δ-T3

42%

• 18%
• 2%
• 3%
• β-T

2%

• 8%

4% γ-T 46% 45%

• γ-T3
• β-T3

24% 48%

• α-T3
• 1%
• δ-T

Total tocopherols and tocotrienols in experimental diets

4 30 56 105 123 144 112

T A C

• T

A C

• 2

5 T A C

• 5

T A C

• 1

C P O

• E

P F A D C P O

Dietary vitamin E sources

20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160

m g v i t a m i n E / k g d i e t

alpha-T beta-T gamma-T alpha-T3 gamma-T3 delta-T3

Vitamin E composition in experimental diets

TAC-0 TAC-25 TAC-50 TAC-100 CPO-E PFAD CPO

Dietary vitamin E sources

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

alpha-T beta-T gamma-T alpha-T3 gamma-T3 delta-T3

Tocopherol and tocotrienol concentrations in the muscle of tilapia after 8 weeks

1.8 4.6 7.1 9.7 6.2 8.4 6.7

TAC-0 TAC-25 TAC-50 TAC-100 CPO-E PFAD CPO

Dietary vitamin E source

0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0

ug vitamin E / g tissue

alpha-T beta-T alpha-T3 gamma-T3 delta-T3

20 40 60 80 100

nmol MDA/g tissue

T A C

• T

A C

• 2

5 T A C

• 5

T A C

• 1

C P O

• E

3 % P F A D 1 % C P O

Dietary vitamin E source

TBARS in muscle of tilapia fed various dietary vitamin E source

a b c c c c d

Total PUFA in muscle Diets 1- 5 = 9.1 to 11.3 % Diet 6 = 12.6 % Diet 7 = 17.1 %

Accumulation of vitamin E in fillet of tilapia fed increasing levels of tocotrienol-rich fraction from palm oil for 9 weeks

2.0 3.3 8.0 11.1 17.8

TRF-0 TRF-30 TRF-60 TRF-120 TRF-240

Dietary vitamin E Level

0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0

u g v i t a m i n E / g t i s s u e

alpha-T gamma-T alpha-T3 gamma-T3 delta-T3

TBARS in muscle of tilapia fed increasing levels

• f a tocotrienol rich fraction from palm oil

40 80 120 160 200

nmol MDA/g tissue

TRF-0 TRF-30 TRF-60 TRF-120 TRF-240

Dietary Vitamin E Level

a b c c c

Conclusion

& Tissue concentrations of tocopherols and

tocotrienols increased in response to increasing dietary concentrations.

& Antioxidant potency of various vitamin E

sources for hybrid tilapia: palm vitamin E > α-tocopherol acetate.

& Biodiscrimination mechanism (α-T

transfer protein) probably exist in tilapia liver with greater affinity for α-T > α-T3 > γ-T3.

Conclusion

& Palm tocopherols and tocotrienols

significantly improve oxidative stability of tilapia fillets that will translate to longer shelf life and freshness for seafood products.

Conclusion

&Deposition of tocotrienols adds value

to tilapia products especially if they are eaten raw as sashimi or sushi.

Human health benefits

• f palm tocotrienols:
• Higher anti-oxidant

potency.

• Hypocholesterolaemic

effects.

• Anti-cancer properties.
• Prevention of

cardiovascular diseases.

Nutritionally enhanced chicken eggs

It is not inconceivable that

• ne day in the near

future, tilapia fillets will also be labeled just like poultry eggs to advertise nutritionally enhanced seafood products at a premium price for the health- conscious consumer.

An overview of lipid nutrition with emphasis on alternative lipid sources in tilapia feeds

Wing-Keong Ng & Cheong-Yew Chong

Fish Nutrition Laboratory School of Biological Sciences Universiti Sains Malaysia Penang, Malaysia