[PPT] - 2.83 / 2.813 Figure from Hendrickson, Lave and Matthews, 2006 T. PowerPoint Presentation

SLIDE 1

1

Manufacturing 2.83 / 2.813

Figure from Hendrickson, Lave and Matthews, 2006

T. Gutowski

SLIDE 2

2

Why is Mfg Energy Important?

1/3 direct energy
Much of the “indirect - use phase” is in the

service of manufacturing

Manufacturing makes the “use phase”

devices

For new energy devices (PV, wind, bio…)

this will impact energy payback

Manufacturing also contributes to toxics

SLIDE 3

3

Readings

1) Thiriez, A., “An Environmental Analysis of Injection Molding”, IEEE 2006 Abstract. 2) Williams, E. et al, “The 1.7 Kilogram Microchip”,

Enviro. Sci. Technol. 36, 2002, p 5504-

5510. (also see the comment and reply to this article) 3) Williams, E. “Energy Intensity of Computer Manufacturing: Hybrid Assessment Combining Process and Economic Input- Output Methods” Environmental Science and Technology, 2004, 38, 6166- 6174 4) Smil, V., pp 288- 291, Table A.11

SLIDE 4

4

Energy Used

1. Mfg Sector- Big Picture
2. Mfg Processes- Boundaries, Examples
3. Hybrid Model- Desktop Computer

SLIDE 5

5

Exa = 10 18

SLIDE 6

6

Direct Energy Used (EJ), 1992

(43%) 100% 86.1 Totals (5%) 16% 13.4 Commercial 20% 17.4 Residential (8%) 26% 22.6 Transportation 30% 38% 32.7 Industry

Mfg(d&i)

Total Percent EJ

SLIDE 7

7

SLIDE 8

8

Trends in Mfg Efficiency

SLIDE 9

9

Energy and Production in the Mfg Sector; 1980 - 1994

DOE, EIA

SLIDE 10

10

Energy Used

1. Mfg Sector- Big Picture
2. Mfg Processes- Boundaries, Examples
3. Hybrid Model- Desktop Computer

SLIDE 11

11

Mfg Process Equipment Raw Materials Energy Product Wastes

SLIDE 12

12

Energy Conversion Mfg Process Equipment

SLIDE 13

13

Aux. Mfg

Process Equipment Energy Conversion Energy Conversion Energy Conversion Mfg Process Equipment Mfg Process Equipment

SLIDE 14

14

Aux. Mfg

Process Equipment Materials Production Energy Conversion Energy Conversion Energy Conversion Energy Conversion Mfg Process Equipment Mfg Process Equipment

SLIDE 15

15

Aux. Mfg

Process Equipment Materials Production Energy Conversion Energy Conversion Energy Conversion Energy Conversion Auxiliary Materials Production Mfg Process Equipment Mfg Process Equipment Energy Conversion

SLIDE 16

16

Aux. Mfg

Process Equipment Environmental Conditioning Materials Production Energy Conversion Energy Conversion Energy Conversion Energy Conversion Auxiliary Materials Production Mfg Process Equipment Mfg Process Equipment Energy Conversion

SLIDE 17

17

Aux. Mfg

Process Equipment Environmental Conditioning Materials Production Energy Conversion Energy Conversion Energy Conversion Energy Conversion Energy Conversion Auxiliary Materials Production Alt. Materials Production Mfg Process Equipment Mfg Process Equipment Energy Conversion

SLIDE 18

18

Aux. Mfg

Process Equipment Environmental Conditioning Materials Production Energy Conversion Energy Conversion Energy Conversion Energy Conversion Energy Conversion Auxiliary Materials Production Materials Purification Production Mfg Process Equipment Mfg Process Equipment Energy Conversion

SLIDE 19

19

Hybrid Input Output Analysis

(transportation, capital equipment, other materials, commercial buildings…

SLIDE 20

20

Manufacturing Processes

Mechanisms:

Plastic Deformation

– Shape change, material removal

Heating

– Heat treat, sinter

Melting

– Welding, molding

Vaporization

– Deposition, etching

W/vol = ∫ τdγ
Q = Cp ΔT
Q = CpΔT + Hm
Q = CpΔT + Hm +

C’pΔT + Hv

SLIDE 21

21

Specific energy, uS

Kalpakjian

SLIDE 22

22

Energy requirements at the machine tool

Jog (x/y/z) (6.6%) Machining (65.8%) Computer and Fans (5.9%) Load Constant (run time) (20.2%) Variable (65.8%) Tool Change (3.3%) Spindle (9.9%) Constant (startup) (13.2%) Carousel (0.4%) Unloaded Motors (2.0%) Spindle Key (2.0%) Coolant Pump (2.0%) Servos (1.3%) Jog (x/y/z) (6.6%) Machining (65.8%) Computer and Fans (5.9%) Load Constant (run time) (20.2%) Variable (65.8%) Tool Change (3.3%) Spindle (9.9%) Constant (startup) (13.2%) Carousel (0.4%) Unloaded Motors (2.0%) Spindle Key (2.0%) Coolant Pump (2.0%) Servos (1.3%)

Production Machining Center Automated Milling Machine

From Toyota, and Kordonowy 2002.

Steel~0.7MJ/kg, Alu~0.25MJ/kg Estimate for Steel~0.7 x 3(aux) x 3(utilities)=6MJ/kg removed

SLIDE 23

23

General electric energy model for mfg processes

Power (kW) Process Rate “r” (kg/hr) Process Rate “r’ (kg/hr) Specific Energy (J/kg) physics auxiliary equipment & infrastructure

P = P0 + k r P/r = E/m = P0/r + k

SLIDE 24

24

SLIDE 25

25

Melting & Machining Mostly Vapor Phase Processes

1 mm Size Mass m = Spindle power P Rotational speed W x D x H = n = S = max 32 x 25 x 30.5 mm 98 g 1.6 W 10,000 min 3

1

Size Spindle power P Rotational speed W x D x H = n = S = max 170 x 170 x 102 mm 36 W 15,600 min 3

1

Microlathe Micro milling machine

5 mm Spindle drive Tool Tool Spindle drive Tool Tool Source: [EHMA05, MEL07, TANA01]

Sample parts

SLIDE 26

26

Improvements in machining

Kalpakjian

SLIDE 27

27

All-electric Vs Hydraulic Injection Molding Machines

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 5 10 15 20 Throughput (kg/hr) All-Electric - 85 tons Hydraulic - 85 tons SEC (MJ/kg) Material: PP

Source: [Thiriez]

SLIDE 28

28

Energy Conversion Mfg Process Equipment

Energy Conversion

electricity gas

il

coal

SLIDE 29

29

Examples (using best values):

gas furnace heating c → t ….. = .94 electric heating c → t → m → e → t (.94)(.425)(.935)(.93)= .347 machine tool c → t → m → e → m (.94)(.425)(.935)(.935)= .349

See Smil’s Table A.11

Process Efficiencies Depend on energy source

SLIDE 30

30

The average power plant in the United States is 35% efficient.

Machining as a product

SLIDE 31

31

50% of the energy from the grid comes from coal

electricity from the US grid comes with

– 667 kg of CO2/MWh – 2.75 kg of SO2/MWh – 1.35 kg of NOx/MWh – 12.3 g Hg/GWh – etc……..

Data from US Energy Information Administration, DOE 2002 & Klee & Graedel

SLIDE 32

32

annual SUV equivalents

SLIDE 33

33

the fine print

Assumptions:

Annual emissions resulting from the operation of a typical production machine tool (22 kW spindle, cutting 57% of the time, 2 shifts, auxiliary equipment, electricity from US grid) as measured in annual SUV equivalents (12,000 miles annually, 20.7 mpg)

CO2 – 61 SUV’s
SO2 – 248 SUV’s
NOx – 34 SUV’s

SLIDE 34

34

Electric Grid Characteristics

Percentage of Gross Electricity genereated from different fuels and Overall Efficiency of the Electric Grid (including distribution) in 1993 in different European countries [Boustead PVC] and in 2003 in the U.S. [EIA 2004].

SLIDE 35

35

Sand Casting

SLIDE 36

36

Casting Material Flow

Metals Flow Sand+ Flow

Pouring Cooling Trim Shakeout Mixing Product Finishing Melting Mold Formation Sand Cooling Sand Processing (AO Treatment) Recycling Recycling Product & Waste Losses

A. Jones

Input Metal Input Sand

SLIDE 37

37

Metals used in Casting

Iron accounts for 3/4 of

US sand cast metals

– Similar distribution in the UK – Share of aluminum expected to increase with lightweighting of automotive parts

Sand used: 5.5t sand:1t

casting

Sand lost about 0.5t

sand:1t casting in US; 0.25:1 in UK

Source: DOE, 1999.

SLIDE 38

38

Sand casting; energy profile

National statistics

(including elect losses)

13 – 17 MJ/kg*

or 6 to 12

MJ/kg* (at the

factory)

Melting largest

component *of saleable cast metal

S. Dalquist

Measured at the factory

SLIDE 39

39

Sand casting; energy profile

National statistics

(including elect losses)

13 – 17 MJ/kg*

or 6 to 12

MJ/kg* (at the

factory)

Melting largest

component *of saleable cast metal

S. Dalquist

Estimate of energy used per kg poured~10 - 12 MJ/kg

SLIDE 40

40

Cupola Melting Analysis

Metallic Input Materials Limestone, Alloys 1.03 tons Gray Iron Products 1.00 tons Slag 0.73 tons Gasses 1,572 kg Dust 0.4 tons Metallurgical Coke 87 kg

Boundaries are drawn around the entire facility so that all components are at standard pressure and temperature

Natural Gas (Afterburners) 4.05 kg Air and Oxygen 1,508 kg

SLIDE 41

41 Gray Iron Products 1.00 tons Slag Dust 0.1 tons

Induction Melting Analysis

Metallic Input Materials Alloys 1.03 tons Electricity 1762 MJ

Boundaries are drawn around the entire facility so that all components are at standard pressure and temperature

Energy Used at the Factory. Multiply by 3 to get average LHV for fuels used in the US.

SLIDE 42

42

Efficiency of Melting: Cupola Melter

η = (ΔH Iron) / (B coke) 1090 (MJ)/2623 (MJ) → 42%

MJ

1090

ΔH Iron = moles 16751.32 Moles of Iron Melted MJ

2622.89

Total Exergy/ LHV Deg C 1510.00 Temperature Raised to kJ/mol 394.4 Exergy/ LHV kJ/mol*K 0.042 Heat Capacity moles

6,650

Moles of Carbon kJ/mol 13.81 Heat of Fusion Coke Combustion: Energy Required for Melting Iron:

SLIDE 43

43

Efficiency of Melting:

Electric Induction Melter

η = (ΔH Iron) / (Electricity)

1079 (MJ)/1762 (MJ) → 61%

MJ

1079

ΔH Iron = moles

16,867.35

Moles of Iron Melted MJ

1762

Electricity at the Factory C 1482 Temperature Raised to kJ/mol*K 0.042 Heat Capacity kJ/mol 13.81 Heat of Fusion Electricity: Energy Required for Melting Iron:

SLIDE 44

44

Electric Induction Melter Larger Boundaries

η = (ΔH Iron) / (Fuels for Electricity) 1079 (MJ)/5287 (MJ) → 20%

MJ

1079

ΔH Iron = moles

16,867.35

Moles of Iron Melted MJ

5287

Fuels used for Electricity C 1482 Temperature Raised to kJ/mol*K 0.042 Heat Capacity kJ/mol 13.81 Heat of Fusion Electricity: Energy Required for Melting Iron:

SLIDE 45

45

Comparative Exergy In

Percent

f Input

Exergy, B Percent of Input Exergy, B 100% 37.68% 17.89% 44.26% 14,018 MJ 5282.5 MJ 2,507 MJ 6,203 MJ

Electric Induction Melting

Fuels for Electricity 100% 0.03% 1.79% 23.30% 0.0% 21.52% 53.06%

Cupola Melting

Material 3.88 MJ Air and Oxygen Enrichment 11,749 MJ Totals Bin 210 MJ Natural Gas (Afterburners) 2,738 MJ Metallurgical Coke 0.25 MJ Limestone Flux 2,528 MJ Cast Iron Remelt 6,233 MJ Input Metallics

SLIDE 46

46

Comparative Exergy Out

Percent of Output Exergy, B Percent of Output Exergy, B 100% 0.03% 0.64% 99.33% 8,306 MJ 2.3 MJ 53 MJ 8,251 MJ Electric Induction Melting 100% 1.18% 0.12% 0.99% 97.71% Cupola Melting Material 8,405 MJ Totals Bout 99.5 MJ Gasses 10 MJ Dust 83 MJ Slag 8,212 MJ Grey Iron

ηP = 8212/11,759 = 70% ηP = 8251/14,018 ≈ 60%

SLIDE 47

47

Limestone Natural Gas for Afterburners Metal Input Coal Coal, Nat Gas, etc.

Carbon Sources: Cupola Melting Process

Cupola Melting Coke Coking Air Pollution Air Pollution Metal Melt Land and Water Pollution Land and Water Pollution Baghouse Electricity Power Plant Air Pollution Land and Water Pollution

SLIDE 48

48

Metal Input Coal, Nat Gas, etc.

Carbon Sources: Electric Induction Melting Process

Electric Induction Melting Air Pollution Metal Melt Land and Water Pollution Electricity Power Plant Air Pollution Land and Water Pollution

SLIDE 49

49

Cupola Melting Carbon Emissions

Cupola Melting

Foundry

600 TOTAL FOR CUPOLA FOUNDRY 205 Total for Balance of Foundry

130 Electric Power Production 60 Greensand Mold Binder 15 Natural Gas Foundry

Balance of Foundry - Per Tonne of Metal Melt (data from a cupola foundry) 395 Total for Cupola Melting

40 Electric Power Production 35 Coking - Assume By-Product Coking 10 Limestone 15 Natural Gas 295 Coke

Kg of CO2 Equivalent/ Tonne of Metal Melt

SLIDE 50

50

Electric Induction Batch Melting Carbon Emissions (2006 model)

Electric Induction Batch Melting 500 TOTAL FOR ELECTRIC INDUCTION BATCH FOUNDRY 205 Total for Balance of Foundry

130 Electric Power Production 60 Greensand Mold Binder 15 Natural Gas Foundry

Balance of Foundry - Per Tonne of Metal Melt (data from a cupola foundry) 295 Total for E. I. Batch Melting

295 Electric Power Production

Kg of CO2 Equivalent/ Tonne of Metal Melt

SLIDE 51

51

Electric Induction Heel Melting Carbon Emissions (1970’s model)

Electric Induction Heel Melting 670 TOTAL FOR ELECTRIC INDUCTION HEEL FOUNDRY 205 Total for Balance of Foundry

130 Electric Power Production 60 Greensand Mold Binder 15 Natural Gas Foundry

Balance of Foundry - Per Tonne of Metal Melt (data from a cupola foundry) 465 Total for E. I. Heel Melting

465 Electric Power Production

Kg of CO2 Equivalent/ Tonne of Metal Melt

SLIDE 52

52

205 205 205 Balance of Foundry 670 465

Electric Induction – Heel

500 295

Electric Induction – Batch

600 395

Cupola

Total Kg CO2 Equiv./Tonne Melt Melting Technology

Carbon Intensity of Foundries (Kg CO2 Equivalent/ Tonne of Metal Melt)

SLIDE 53

53

Sand casting; environmental issues

S. Dalquist

SLIDE 54

54

Aggregate TRI data (toxic releases)

SLIDE 55

55

EPA Sandcasting Emissions Factors

Emissions factors are useful

because it is often too time consuming or expensive to monitor emissions from individual sources.

They are the best way to

estimate emissions if you do not have test data.

*S= % of sulfur in the coke. Assumes 30% conversion of sulfur into SO2.

Source: EPA AP-42 Series 12.10 Iron Foundries http://www.epa.gov/ttn/chief/ap42/ch12/bgdocs/b12s10.pdf

0.1 Baghouse 0.005 - 0.07

0.5

Uncontrolled Electric Induction 0.3 Baghouse 0.05- 0.6 0.6S* 73 6.9 Uncontrolled Cupola Lead SO2 CO Total Particulate Process

Iron Melting Furnace Emissions Factors (kg/Mg of iron produced)

Source:AFS Organic HAP Emissions Factors for Iron Foundries www.afsinc.org/pdfs/OrganicHAPemissionfactors.pdf

0.285 EPA average core 0.5424 AFS average core 0.643 AFS heavily cored Emissions Factor Core Loading

Pouring, Cooling Shakeout Organic HAP Emissions Factors for Cored Greensand Molds (lbs/ton of iron produced)

SLIDE 56

56

TRI Emissions Data – 2003 XYZ Foundry (270,000 tons poured)

262,191 262,117 74 74 ZINC (FUME OR DUST) 1,152,889 1,145,585 7,300 TOTALS 7,484 835 6,645 5 6,640 PHENOL 14.6 0.25 14.35 14.35 MERCURY 768,709 768,387 322 48 274 MANGANESE 39,692 39,525 167 40 127 LEAD 20 20 DIISOCYANATES 74,778 74,701 78 9 69 COPPER Total waste Managed (lbs) Total transfers off site for waste Management (lbs) Total on-site Release (lbs) Surface Water Discharge (lbs) Total Air Emissions (lbs) Chemical

SLIDE 57

57

Injection Molding

* * Source: http://www.idsa-mp.org/proc/plastic/injection/injection_process.htm *

Schematic of thermoplastic Injection molding machine

SLIDE 58

58

CRADLE Polymer Delivery

Injection Molding

Emissions to air, water, & land Scrap Note to Reader: FACTORY GATE = Also included in the Paper Polymer Delivery Naphtha, Oil. Natural Gas Ancilliary Raw Materials

Thermoplastic Production

(Boustead) Internal Transport Additives

Compounder

Pelletizing Building (lights,heating, ect..)

Energy Production Industry

Anciliary Raw Materials Emissions to air, water, & land Internal Transport Drying = Focus of this Analysis

Waste Management

Drying Building (lights,heating, ect..) Packaging

Injection Molder

Extrusion

Service Period 1 kg of Injection Molded Polymer

Emissions to air, water & land Emissions to air, water & land

SLIDE 59

59

Polymer Production

Largest Player in the Injection Molding LCI

What is a polymer: How much energy does it take to make 1 kg of polymer = a lot !!! Values are in MJ per kg of polymer produced.

SLIDE 60

60

CRADLE Polymer Delivery

Injection Molding

Emissions to air, water, & land Scrap Note to Reader: FACTORY GATE = Also included in the Paper Polymer Delivery Naphtha, Oil. Natural Gas Ancilliary Raw Materials

Thermoplastic Production

(Boustead) Internal Transport Additives

Compounder

Pelletizing Building (lights,heating, ect..)

Energy Production Industry

Anciliary Raw Materials Emissions to air, water, & land Internal Transport Drying = Focus of this Analysis

Waste Management

Drying Building (lights,heating, ect..) Packaging

Injection Molder

Extrusion

Service Period 1 kg of Injection Molded Polymer

Emissions to air, water & land Emissions to air, water & land

SLIDE 61

61

Compounding and Extrusion

An extruder is used to mix additives with a polymer base, to

bestow the polymer with the required characteristics.

Similar to an injection molding machine, but without a mold

and continuous production.

Thus it has a similar energy consumption profile (3 – 6 MJ/kg)

Environmentally Unfriendly Additives:

Fluorinated blowing agents (GHG’s)
Phalates (some toxic to human

liver, kidney and testicles)

Organotin stabilizers (toxic and

damage marine wildlife)

SLIDE 62

62

Driers

Used to dry internal moisture in hygroscopic polymers and external

moisture in non-hygroscopic ones.

It is done before extruding and injection molding.

W150 W200 W300 W400 W600 W800 W1000 W1600 W2400 W3200 W5000

R2 = 0.8225 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 Throughput (kg/hr) Power Trendline Specific Power Consumption (MJ/kg)

Source: [Thiriez]

SLIDE 63

63

CRADLE Polymer Delivery

Injection Molding

Emissions to air, water, & land Scrap Note to Reader: FACTORY GATE = Also included in the Paper Polymer Delivery Naphtha, Oil. Natural Gas Ancilliary Raw Materials

Thermoplastic Production

(Boustead) Internal Transport Additives

Compounder

Pelletizing Building (lights,heating, ect..)

Energy Production Industry

Anciliary Raw Materials Emissions to air, water, & land Internal Transport Drying = Focus of this Analysis

Waste Management

Drying Building (lights,heating, ect..) Packaging

Injection Molder

Extrusion

Service Period 1 kg of Injection Molded Polymer

Emissions to air, water & land Emissions to air, water & land

SLIDE 64

64

Injection molding cycle; 1) Melt, 2) Inject, 3) Hold, 4) Eject

Source: http://cache.husky.ca/pdf/br

chures/br-hylectric03a.pdf

SLIDE 65

65

Machine Types:

Hydraulic

– One or more hydraulic pumps to power all of the machine’s motions. – Inefficient: idle power & extra transfer of work (pump  hydraulic fluid  mechanical motion)

All-electric

– Servo motors power  mechanical drives – Superior efficiency – Not a good for high clamping forces

Hybrid
ex: electric screw & hydraulic clamp

SLIDE 66

66

All-electric vs. hybrid

20 40 60 80 100 120 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Time (seconds) Power Required (kW) MM 550 Hybrid NT 440 All-Electric Plasticiz e Inject high Clamp open-close Inject low

ton

Cool Ton Buildup

The hydraulic plot would be even higher than the hybrid curve

Source: [Thiriez]

SLIDE 67

67

Source: [Kordonowy 2002]

Idling Power (Fixed)

SLIDE 68

68

For Hydraulics and Hybrids as throughput increases, SEC  k.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 50 100 150 200 Throughput (kg/hr) SEC (MJ/kg) HP 25 HP 50 HP 60 HP 75 HP 100 Low Enthalpy - Raise Resin to Inj. Temp - PVC High Enthalpy - Raise Resin to Inj. Temp - HDPE Variable Pump Hydraulic Injection Molding Machines.

Enthalpy value to melt plastics is just 0.1 to 0.7 MJ/kg !!! Does not account for the electric grid.

Source: [Thiriez]

SLIDE 69

69

HDPE LLDPE LDPE PP PVC PS Consumed

Inj. Molded

PC PET avg 89.8 79.7 73.1 83.0 59.2 87.2 81.2 74.6 95.7 78.8 low 77.9 79.7 64.6 64.0 52.4 70.8 69.7 62.8 78.2 59.4 high 111.5 79.7 92.0 111.5 79.5 118.0 102.7 97.6 117.4 96.0 avg low high avg low high avg low high avg low high 0.99 0.09

Thermoplastic Production

Generic by Amount Extras Building (lights, heating, ect..) Pelletizing Polymer Delivery 0.19

Compounder

0.24 Internal Transport 0.19 0.12 0.24 Polymer Delivery 3.57 3.25 8.01 0.30 1.82 5.00 1.62 Extrusion 0.70 0.16

0.06
0.31

Subtotal 0.12

5.51

Drying ENERGY CONSUMPTION BY STAGE in MJ/kg of shot

LCI Summarized Results

SLIDE 70

70

avg low high avg low high avg low high avg low high avg low high Notes Drying - the values presented assume no knowledge of the materials' hygroscopia. In order words, they are averages between hygroscopic and non-hygroscopic values. For hygroscopic materials such as PC and PET additional drying energy is needed (0.65 MJ/kg in the case of PC and 0.52 MJ/kg in the case of PET) Drying Internal Transport 3.11 1.80 1.62

0.30
Building (lights,

heating, ect..) 0.99

0.04

0.70 69.46 117.34 7.35 6.68 124.18 87.87 87.20 70.77 Hybrid All-Electric 93.60 Subtotal TOTAL w/ Generic Inj. Molded Polymer 71.65 178.68 Hydraulic 72.57

13.08

5.35 11.29 3.99 69.79 5.56 4.89 Hydraulic Hybrid All-Electric Injection Molding - Choose One 19.70 26.54 4.47 3.17 11.22 18.06 8.45 15.29

Injection Molder

TOTAL w/o Polymer Prod 18.97 81.04 Granulating - a scarp rate of 10 % is assumed Pelletizing - in the case of pelletizing an extra 0.3 MJ/kg is needed for PP 13.24 12.57 8.84 7.96 6.66 Injection Molding (look below) Scrap (Granulating) 0.05 0.03 0.12

Source: [Thiriez]

SLIDE 71

71

Aux. Mfg

Process Equipment Materials Production Energy Conversion Energy Conversion Energy Conversion Energy Conversion Energy Conversion Alt. Materials Production Mfg Process Equipment Mfg Process Equipment

SLIDE 72

72

Eeq = (φEpri + (1-φ)Esec)(1+α+γ) + Emfg(1+α+β+γ)

SLIDE 73

73

Eeq = (φEpri + (1-φ)Esec)(1+α+γ) + Emfg(δ+α+β+γ)

SLIDE 74

74

Primary and secondary energy requirements for materials

Chapman and Roberts

SLIDE 75

75

Manufacturing reaches both up and down stream

material energy requirement mfg energy requirement

some processes can use recycled material process wastes require more material input process wastes require more process energy some process wastes can be recycled

Eeq = ( φEpri + (1-φ )Esec)(1+α+γ) + Emfg(1+α+β+γ)

SLIDE 76

76

Typical parameters

.9 .1 .1

(sand)

1 .05-1

Machining

.1 1 .9-1

Injection molding

1 1 .05-.1

Sand casting (metal)

γ

recycle

β

prompt

α

waste

δ φ

primary

SLIDE 77

77

Approximations for Mfg Processes

SLIDE 78

78

Aux. Mfg

Process Equipment Environmental Conditioning Materials Production Energy Conversion Energy Conversion Energy Conversion Energy Conversion Energy Conversion Auxiliary Materials Production Materials Purification Production Mfg Process Equipment Mfg Process Equipment Energy Conversion

SLIDE 79

79

Electronics Fabrication Processes

References

– Williams, E. et al, The 1.7 Kilogram Microchip, – (See Comments with this Article!!) – Williams, E. “Energy Intensity of Computer Manufacturing: Hybrid Assessment Combining Process and Economic Input-Output Methods”

– Kuehr, R, and Williams, E. “Computers and the Environment” Kluwer Press 2003 – Murphy, C. F. Electronics, in “Environmentally Benign Manufacturing” Gutowski et al 2001 available at http://web.mit.edu/ebm/

– Branham, Matthew, MS Thesis M.E. MIT, 2008

SLIDE 80

80

Thermal Oxidation

SLIDE 81

81

0.99963 149256000 149256000 Electricity

Input Energy

0.00063 940.54 0.001101 0.03091 Si

Silicon Consumed from Substrate

0.0351 52456.7 0.22218 0.4479 H2 0.00051 761.7636 0.19188 6.1399 O2 0.00089 1331.769 1.9301 54.069 N2 %Total Input Exergy Exergy (J) Input moles or energy (J) Input mass (g) Species

Input Gases

8.711 0.001103 0.066253 SiO2 layer

Outputs

degree of perfection η

P = 5.83*10

8

Wet Oxidation Process

Branham

SLIDE 82

82

Plasma Enhanced Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD)

SLIDE 83

83

4849.9 7.028779mol

196.9 N2

99.5 0.008511mol

0.34 Ar

60.79 0.015313mol

0.49 O2 .749

40928.6 0.029579mol

0.95 SiH4 %Total Inputs Exergy (J) Input moles or primary energy Input mass (g) Species

Input Deposition Gases

36.2 2220000

2220000J

Electricity

Input Energy

266931.6 0.437453mol

31.06 NF3 63.0

3598253 4.326643mol

69.41 CH4

Input Cleaning Gases

3.2667 0.000414mol

0.0248 Undoped Silicate Glass laye

Outputs

degree of perfection η

P = 5.33*10

7

Plasma enhanced CVD

Branham

SLIDE 84

84

1.7 kg microchip

Williams et al

SLIDE 85

85

Production of Hyper- Pure Silicon

Extraction Reduction to Silicon Metal SiO2 + C → Si + CO2 Conversion to Trichlorosilane, distillation Si + 3HCl → HSiCl3 + H2 CVD to produce polycrystalline Si (Polysilicon) HSiCl3 + H2 → Si + 3HCl Formation of monocrystalline Si ingot Cutting and polishing to produce Si wafers

S. Paap

SLIDE 86

86

Czochralski crystal pulling

SLIDE 87

87

1.7 kg microchip

Williams et al 2130kWh/kg = 7.7 GJ/kg Compare to Smil, Table A.12

SLIDE 88

88

1.7 kg microchip

Williams et al

SLIDE 89

89

Williams et al

56 MJ/2g = 28 GJ/kg!!

SLIDE 90

90

Matthew Branham

SLIDE 91

91

Matthew Branham

SLIDE 92

92

Materials Inventory for Fabrication of a 15.5 kg monitor and a 9 kg CPU.

Kuehr and Williams

Est. 5600MJ/27kg = 200 MJ/kg

SLIDE 93

93

Hybrid Input Output Analysis

(transportation, capital equipment, other materials, commercial buildings…

SLIDE 94

94

From Williams’ Hybrid Model

SLIDE 95

95

Williams’ Hybrid Estimate

Total Energy = Process Result

+ IO Correction IO Correction = “additive factor” + supply chain

Additive factor identifiable costs
Supply chain from residual value

SLIDE 96

96

Williams Hybrid Results

SLIDE 97

97

Compare with the EI/O Model

see http://www.bls.gov/cpi/ and use

inflation calculator: $1,700/1.0729 = $1585

go to http://www.eiolca.net/

Sector #334111: Electronic computer manufacturing

$1585 x 4.32 MJ/$ = 6847 MJ Compare this with Eric’s answer 6400 MJ

SLIDE 98

98

Summary

Enormous range of

energy use/kg

Issues:

– Rate/scale – Aux equipment – Vapor/mat’l utilization – Purity/recycle – Aux. mat’ls – Environmental conditioning – Duty cycle (idle Vs working) – Yields

Al Si Steel