Working Elderly in Fiji: Choice or necessity? Kesaia Seniloli and - - PDF document

1

Working Elderly in Fiji: Choice or necessity? Kesaia Seniloli and Rupeni Tawake University of the South Pacific Private Mail Bag Suva Fiji Islands seniloli_k@usp.ac.fj; rupeni.tawake@usp.ac.fj (679) 3232258

2

ABSTRACT This paper examined the demographic, social and economic factors influencing the work types and patterns of the elderly in Fiji. A binary logistic model was applied to determine the magnitude of the effects of selected social and economic variables on work status of the elderly in Fiji. The results shows that among other factors, Age, Gender, Living Arrangements, Education and Health Status were most important in explaining the variation in the elderly working for wages and salary or being in self-employment. For many of the elderly in Fiji, work is a necessity rather than a choice.

Key words: demographic, social, economic, work types and patterns, choice, necessity

3

Working Elderly in Fiji: Choice or necessity Introduction

Labour Force Participation of people aged 55 and over in Fiji increased in the last inter-censal period, 1996-2007 (Table 1). There is increasing number of people in the age group 55 years and above seeking work as some of them had failed to plan well or spent most of their working lives earning below or just above the poverty line too inadequate to save enough for their

• retirement. Many never imagined they would live longer than their parents. If more people in

the age 55 years and over continue to work, this could improve their ability to pay for their everyday expenses and their living standards. The older Fijians are a growing group with greater longevity as shown by the overall improvement in life expectancy increasing from fifty-one years in the 1950’s to seventy years at present (Table 2). Living longer is an accomplishment for Fiji. The challenge however for the country is to change the perceptions of society on the elderly because as a group they can still be active, productive, politically - their collective vote can be important and they can contribute significantly to society. Table 1: Economic Activity, population 55 years and over, 1996 and 2007 1996 2007 Total Population 55+ years 62,052 94,082 In Labour Force 29,714 (47.9%) 35,914 (38.2%) Money Economy 16,966 (27.4) 23,729 (25.2%) Without Subsistence 7,264 16,219 With Subsistence 9,724 7,510

4

Unemployed 1,147 2372 Subsistence And money work 9724 1403 No money work 11579 9813 Source: Bureau of statistics, 1996, 2007 Table 2: Life Expectancy at Birth for Fiji by Sex (Years) Period Both Sexes (Males & Females) Males Females 1956 51 52 54 1966 58 56 59 1976 62 60 63 1986 65 63 66 1996 67 65 69 2007 70 68 71 Source: Fiji Island Bureau of Statistics About 31 per cent of the economically active population over fifteen years old is in the formal sector and earning wages and salary (Table3). A significant proportion of those working in the formal sector are employed by the government. The retirement age for these civil servants is fifty-five years. The Fiji government supports the proposition that employment of older persons reduces the job opportunities for younger persons and this is known as the “lump of labor theory” (Munnel and Wu). Munnell and Wu also found in their study that there is no evidence in United States of America and China of crowding out of younger persons regarding their job

• pportunities by the continued employment of older persons. Fiji Government however

formulated the policy on reducing the retirement age from sixty to fifty-five years. With the gap

5

between the current life expectancy of seventy and the current retirement age of fifty-five, it is critical to examine the continued work patterns of the elderly in Fiji. The consequences of the reduction in retirement age by the government, the Fiji National Provident Fund Pension Scheme reforms along with the increasing cost of living has not been felt as much as on any other proportion of the population as the elderly. Apparently many had not accumulated enough wealth to support them in their old age. The reduction in retirement age forced most of the elderly people to exit the labour force in 2009 and placed them in a more difficult and vulnerable situation than before. However, as people age many of them if not all are not in a position to retire because of inadequate savings and pension. Studying and knowing the patterns and types of work the elderly are engaged in will be useful in the formulation of policies about the wellbeing of the elderly proportion of the population. Although work is important in maintaining the quality of life of the elderly in Fiji, very few of the studies conducted thus far have specifically focused on the labour force participation of the elderly in Fiji. Aims and Objectives The main aims of this study are to explore and throw some light on the motivations to continued work amongst the people 55 years and over in Fiji and to determine the forms of participation in the labour force of the elderly in Fiji. The specific objectives of this research are; to examine the factors that are likely to influence the decisions about continued workforce participation of the elderly in Fiji; to determine the types and patterns of work of the elderly in Fiji; the characteristics of the elderly who continue to work and to assess the magnitude of the effects of each of the determinants of work amongst the elderly in Fiji.

6

The working elderly –an explanation Devaney (1995:172-185) explains that in developing countries as lifespan increases, so is the need to seek income. In these countries, higher proportions of the elderly are surviving below the poverty threshold due to lower income. Therefore population ageing is linked to poverty in these countries. The conflict theory of productive ageing presupposes that because of the need to earn and provide for themselves and family members, population in low income countries will be productive in older age (Merton, 1968). Many elderly persons in developing countries feel financially squeezed to stop working. With increased costs, some of the elderly continue to work in their professions, while some who are more entrepreneurial start their business. Schuller (1987) discussed the intricate shift between labour and retirement. He argued that there is no longer an easy shift from education to employment as well as an unclear phase following working life. Schuller termed this “work-ending” and he had called for more studies

• n this abandoned life stage. This would include the factors surrounding the decisions to be

involved in the labour force for individuals who are in their 50s and 60s. In this regard, it is particularly important to study the extent of the influence of family situations and caring roles

• n working lives, efficiency, earnings and one’s capability to plan for retirement. There is a need

to conduct studies on these issues in Fiji as the population continues to age. Fiji like in any other developing country, the proportion of the elderly that worked depended much on their individual savings and pensions that they have actually accumulated during their working years. Even though people are dependent on these means, they still do not accumulate sufficient amount of wealth during their working years in order to sustain them in their old age. In Fiji, most if not all of the elderly that have access to superannuation funds, have large proportion of their savings used up in financing their children’s education, financing housing needs and meeting other family obligations, therefore reducing their savings capacity. After exhausting all their savings, the elderly in many cases usually depend on the support from their children or relatives or continue to work.

7

The liability to care for ones parents as they age lies with the younger age group in their

• families. Typical of the Pacific culture, filial piety is rooted in Fijian and Indian cultures. The

children are usually obliged to support their aged parents in return for the parental care and support provided to them by their parents during their child and teenage life which Gouldner (1960) termed as reciprocity. However old age support is not guaranteed and this uncertainty forces many people to work beyond retirement age. However, westernization has changed people’s perceptions towards the extended family. At present, there is more preference for smaller nuclear family rather than a big extended family. This is mostly true for developing countries. Many people would therefore view the elderly as an additional burden in their family. This trend is theoretically supported by Ruggles (1987) who has clearly stated that there will be a movement in family structure generally from less extended family to more nuclear families. This is mainly due to industrialization and urbanization at the same time as an economy developed. Industrialization and urbanization has also resulted to more rural to urban and international migration of the younger generation mainly in search of better job opportunities and to further their education. This has in fact left the elderly to lose assurance on the capacity of their children or extended family to support

• them. This lack of assurance has caused most of the elderly to work right up to older ages.

With a comprehensive knowledge of the factors that govern the labour force participation of the elderly and the type of work that they are involved in, we can help relevant authorities design strategies that will help uphold and maintain the standard of living of the elderly in Fiji. Table 3: Labour Force Participation Rates (%) for the population age 55 years and over Age All sectors, 1996 LF Pop LFPR (N) (N) (%) 55-59 12863 22245 57.8

8

60-64 8033 15459 52 65-69 4801 10761 44.6 70-74 2323 6357 36.5 75+ 1694 7230 23.4 Total 29714 62052 47.9 2007 55-59 15830 31161 50.8 60-64 9218 24120 38.2 65-69 5563 16808 33.1 70-74 2781 10110 27.5 75+ 2654 11902 22.3 Total * 97481 220212 44.3 Source: Fiji Bureau of Statistics Data Sources and Methods The following data sources were used to draw data on the work type and patterns of the elderly in Fiji during the following reference periods; Fiji Islands Population and Housing Census Report 1996, Fiji Islands Population and Housing Census Report 2007 and the Working Elderly Survey that was carried out from 2011-2012. This study adopts a quantitative approach utilizing data from the Working Elderly Survey 2011- 2012 complemented by a qualitative research method. Qualitative data was obtained from the

• pen ended questions of the questionnaire. The Working Elderly Survey administered a semi-

structured questionnaire to eight hundred and fifteen people over the age of 55 years. This study uses data on types and patterns of work, wages and salary, maintenance and change of

• ccupation after retirement, intensity of work and social and correlates of types of work of the

elderly.

9

It identifies persons who have reached 55 years and above as the base age aligning with the current Fiji government retirement age. Retirement has become the default definition of elderly. Sampling and Data Collection The survey is a nationally representative survey. The population and sampling frame for the survey is that portion of the population which was 55 years and older in Fiji during the 2007 Census of Housing and Population. The sample consisted of 815 elderly persons or one per cent of people over 55 years in Fiji. A multi stage sampling procedure was employed in urban areas to produce a sample of 411 elderly persons (50.4 per cent of the sample). This was distributed to 7 major urban areas in proportion to sex, ethnicity and five year age groups. In rural areas a purposive selection of the provinces, villages and settlements was made producing a sample of 404 elderly persons, 49.6% of the sample. This rural sample was distributed to the six major provinces in Fiji in proportion to sex, ethnicity and five year age groups. The distribution was proportionate to the distribution of Fiji national population. Data Collection A household questionnaire was administered to provide the socio-economic status of the

• household. Questions on work comprised the main questionnaire.

Study variables and measurement To address the overall research aims this study uses a set of key variables related to personal information, work type of the elderly, work and their autonomy.

10

The individual attributes are useful for this study to interpret the findings and for understanding these variables and their influence on the elderly’s autonomy and their choice to work. The individual attributes used in this study include current age, marital status, sex, current residence, ethnicity, living arrangements, number of children, household size, health index, income and work status. The variables of the elderly’s autonomy used in the study include decision-making to work, to contribute to the household expenses, and having control on own income. Data are useful in understanding their level of autonomy and its influence on their status in the household and their decision to work. The following variables on the status of work include work status, types of work, intensity of work, need to work and self- employment. Methodology The study adopts a quantitative approach in which bivariate analysis was employed for associations between variables using Pearson’s Chi square test for association. Some descriptive statistics were computed to explain the pattern of specific events. A scoring technique was developed and applied to health indices to determine the health status

• f the elderly

Multivariate analysis was employed in the data analysis. A binary logistic model was applied to determine the magnitude of the effects of selected social and economic variables on work status of the elderly in Fiji.

Results and Discussion Profile of the Working Elderly in Fiji

11

Table 4 shows the profile of the elderly in Fiji. Their annual income ranges from as low as F$1,200 to F$100,000. Almost all elderly are livings below the poverty threshold of F$15,000 per annum. On average the elderly persons in the study have four children. Most are in co- residence with their spouse and children and many have a low level of educational attainment, particularly women. The elderly are healthy in general and the oldest old as expected are not so

• healthy. In addition, most of the elderly people are self-employed.

Table 4: Profile of the Working Elderly in Fiji

Socio-demographic characteristics % Age 55-64yrs 70.0 65-74 25.9 75yrs+ 4.1 Marital Status Married 180 Ever Married 50 Single 17 Sex Males 123 Females 124 Area of Residence Urban 107 Rural 140 Ethnicity Fijian 170 Indian 77 Living Arrangements Elderly living Alone or with Spouse only 35.6 Elderly living with Spouse and at least one child 53.8 Elderly living with spouse, at least one children and others 26 Education No Education 7.7 Up to Primary Level 52.6 Up to Secondary Level 27.9 Up to Tertiary Level 11.7 Number of Living Children 16.2 1-3 50.2

12

>4 33.6 Household Size 1-3 50.2 >4 49.8 Health Not so healthy 12.9 Healthy 66.0 Very Healthy 21.1 Income F$15,000 or less 91.1 More than F$15,000 8.9 Work Status Wages and Salary 25.1 Self Employed 74.9 Total (N) 100 (247)

Source: Working Elderly Survey 2011-2012

Types and Patterns and Work

This section will examine the types and patterns of work among the elderly in Fiji. The first part will elucidate the work types and patterns of elderly that are working for a wage or salary and the second part will discuss work types and patterns of self-employed elderly.

Elderly working for Wages and Salary

Most of the elderly working for wages or salary is engaged in elementary occupations (Table 5) such as secretarial work, driving taxis, house maids, security guards and farm laborers. They are mostly in the age category 55-64 years, married, urban dwellers, Fijian by ethnicity, living with children, would have only attained primary level of education, dwell in big households and are healthy in general. Those elderly persons classified in Crafts and Related Tradesman category are mostly those with carpentry skills and a few with automotive experience and plumbers. These elderly have attained mostly secondary and tertiary level of education. A significant number of elderly are engaged in consultancy work and these are doctors, mid-wives and primary school teachers. Table 5: Type of Work of Elderly working for Wages and Salary by Socio-Economic Variables Professionals & Consultancy Elementary Total (N)

13

Crafts & Related Tradesman Age 55-64 21.7 26.1 52.2 46 65-74 25.0 12.5 62.5 16 0.533* Marital Status Married 26.0 22.0 52.0 50 Ever Married & Single 8.3 25.0 66.7 12 0.416* Sex Males 23.7 28.9 47.4 38 Females 20.8 12.5 66.7 24 0.245* Area of Residence Urban 22.2 17.8 60.0 45 Rural 23.5 35.3 41.2 17 0.289* Ethnicity Fijian 22.5 22.5 55.0 40 Indian 22.7 22.7 54.5 22 0.999* Living Arrangements Living Alone or with Spouse 16.7 25.0 58.3 24 Living with Children 25.9 25.9 48.1 27 Living with Children & Others 27.3 9.1 63.6 11 0.713* Education Primary or Less 20.0 12.0 68.0 25 Secondary or more 24.3 29.7 45.9 37 0.172* Number of Living Children =<3 19.5 26.8 53.7 41 =>4 28.6 14.3 57.1 21 0.472* Household Size 1-3 7.4 33.3 59.3 27 =>4 34.3 14.3 51.4 35 0.024* Health Status

14

Not so healthy

• 33.3

66.7 6 Healthy 28.9 22.2 48.9 45 Very Healthy 9.1 18.2 72.7 11 0.340 Highlighted: Highly Significant variable Source: Working Elderly Survey 2011-2012 There is more elderly working for a wage or salary in the urban areas. This would be a manifestation of the economic necessity to work for the elderly in urban areas due to the high cost of living. More than half of the elderly that are working for wages or salary are Fijians (64.5 per cent). The elderly engaged in elementary occupations are most likely to be living alone or with spouse only. It is evident in Table 5 that elderly engaged in professional and crafts/related tradesman and also elementary type of occupation are most likely to be living in household sizes of four or

• more. Elderly engaged in consultancy work are most likely to be living in household sizes of

three or less. This is an indication of the economic necessity for elderly dwelling in bigger households to work to support their families. Elderly that Maintained same Occupation The table below shows the employment structure of the elderly persons that have maintained the same occupation after fifty-five years of age. Table 6: Type of Work by Elderly who maintained same occupation Type of Occupation Percentage (%) Professionals & Crafts and Related Tradesman 27.6 Consultancy 20.7 Elementary Occupations 51.7 Number of Elderly (N) 29 Source: Working Elderly Survey 2011-2012

15

The table above (Table 6) shows that most of the elderly who has maintained same occupation are engaged in elementary occupations. These elderly persons are mainly working on a seasonal basis and are mostly unskilled farm laborers with minimal level of education. Elderly employed as professionals and consultants only work when they are engaged as consultants or when work is available. The employment is usually short term and temporary in nature. The elderly persons who have maintained the same occupation are most likely to be of Fijian ethnicity, live in urban area, and relatively healthy. Elderly that has changed Occupation: Before and after 55 years There were approximately 53 per cent of the elderly persons who have changed occupation (Table 7). Table 7: Type of Work by Elderly before and after 55 years Type of Occupation Before 55 Years (%) After 55 Years (%) Professionals & Crafts and Related Tradesman 63.6 24.2 Consultancy 9.1 24.2 Elementary Occupations 27.3 51.5 Number of elderly (N) 33 33 Source: Working Elderly Survey 2011-2012 Table 7 shows that more elderly persons have moved from their professions to elementary

• jobs. The transition is moving from professions such as teachers, administrators, police officers

and army officers to taxi drivers. These elderly previously employed by government and working on a full time basis are currently employed in the private sector and working on a part time basis and or when the need arises. This transition in occupational structure has also led to a decline in income. The change in occupation has by some means led to a general slippage in their social and economic status. Sector and Intensity of Work

16

Most of the elderly who have not retired and are currently working for a wage or salary are largely employed by private organisations. The retirement age in these organizations is higher than the government retirement age of 55 years. Currently approximately 6 per cent of the elderly work in the public sector work on a contractual basis. There is rarely any elderly working for the civil service because of the fifty- five years compulsory retirement age. The majority of the elderly are working part time as reflected in Table 8. However the crafts and tradesman are most likely to work for eight or more hours and such intense participation in workforce indicates economic necessity to earn and the demand for such skills. The elderly persons working as consultants on the other hand, work flexible hours.

17

Table 8: Percentage of Elderly working for a Wage/Salary according to intensity of work by Place of Residence Part Time/Full Time Job Urban Rural Total (N) Part Time Job 72.2 27.8 36 Full Time Job 73.1 26.9 26 Number of Elderly 72.6 27.4 62 Source: Working Elderly Survey 2011-2012 Years Spent in Labour Force The majority of the elderly who worked at the same occupation throughout their life has spent more than ten years in their job. Among the elderly who has changed their occupation, most has only spent up to three years in their current position (12/15). This is an indication of the need to work. Approximately 67 per cent of the elderly aged sixty-five years and over has spent more than ten years in the labor force. Since the elderly are mostly engaged in wage, low skill and seasonal types of work, the length of their work life is protracted as the elderly are most likely to have gained the experience during their work life.

Work: Choice or necessity?

The survey also asked questions relating to reasons for current work in order to examine the need and motivation for elderly currently working for a wage or salary (Table 9). The majority of the elderly currently working for wages and salary are working out of economic necessity and not by choice. Many elderly persons indicated the following reasons for labor force participation; support own need and daily survival, inadequate savings, pay off property/mortgage, pay off loan, financially support children’s education and support family

• needs. For those working by choice, they indicated the following reasons for labor force

participation; passion for the job, job is in demand with less or no qualified person, self-occupy and to keep fit.

18

The need to work by other demographic variables was also examined. It was evident that female elderly living with spouse are working because it is a choice. This would indicate that their spouse is working. The difference between the elderly males living with others and working because of economic compulsion than by choice is slight. Similarly more female elderly living with others work due to economic necessity. Elderly women in Fiji living with others are highly likely to work for a wage

• r salary because of economic compulsions.

The elderly persons in the age category 55-64 years are mostly working due to economic necessity compared to elderly in the older age category that are mostly working by choice. The Table also shows that elderly with secondary education or less are mostly working due to economic compulsion compared to elderly with tertiary education or more who are mostly working by choice. Table 9 also shows that elderly in the higher income categories are mostly working by choice compared to elderly in the lower income categories that are working due to an economic compulsion. The majority of the ever-married and single elderly currently working for a wage or salary are working because it is an economic necessity. Table 9: Per Cent Distribution of Currently Working Elderly by the Need to Work According to Background Characteristics Background Variables By Choice By Economic/Other Compulsion Total Number of Elderly Age 55-64 37.0 63.0 100 46 65 yrs + 62.5 37.5 100 16 Sex Male 42.2 57.8 100 45 Female 47.1 52.9 100 17 Place of Residence Urban 46.9 53.1 100 49 Rural 30.8 69.2 100 13

19

Ethnicity Fijian 45.9 54.1 100 37 Indian 40.0 60.0 100 25 Marital Status Married 48.0 52.0 100 50 Ever Married and Single 25.0 75.0 100 12 Education Secondary or Less 34.1 65.9 100 41 Tertiary or More 61.9 38.1 100 21 Income F$3000> 31.3 68.8 100 16 F$3000-F$5999 33.3 66.7 100 15 F$6000-F$8999 30.0 70.0 100 10 F$9000- F$14999 58.3 41.7 100 12 F$15000< 77.8 22.2 100 9 Note: Highlighted are significant variables Source: Working Elderly Survey 2011-2012

Self Employed Elderly

About 24 per cent of the elderly in the survey are currently self-employed, most of whom were previously employed elsewhere (Table 10). The elderly have had to substitute formal work with self-employment after retirement. The majority of the elderly who were currently self- employed were previously engaged in elementary occupations including farm laborers, drivers and jobs that do not require particular skills including security guards and house maids. Elderly persons that were previously employed as crafts and related tradesman were mostly carpenters and automotive specialists (mechanics) with a few electricians and other trade related work. Former teachers and police officers also tried to make ends meet by some form

20

• f self-employment. Twenty-five per cent of the elderly population in the study have always

been self employed

21

Table 10: Self Employed Elderly with their Previous Occupations Occupation Percentage Professional & Crafts and Related Tradesman 29.4% Elementary 45.4% Self Employed 25.4% Total 185 Source: Working Elderly Survey 2011-2012 Table 11 shows that among the currently self-employed elderly, majority of whom are engaged in agriculture businesses. Table 11: Self Employment among the Elderly in Fiji 2011-12 by socio-economic variables Socio-Economic Variables Type of Self Employed Business Agriculture (%) Non-Agriculture (%) Number of Elderly (N) Age 55-64yrs 56.4 43.6 117 65yrs+ 60.3 39.7 68 Gender Males 61.2 38.8 85 Females 55.0 45.0 100 Area of Residence* Urban 41.9 58.1 62 Rural 65.9 34.1 123 Ethnicity Fijian 60.8 39.2 130 Indian 50.9 49.1 55 Marital Status Married 56.9 43.1 123 Ever Married and Single 59.7 40.3 62 Living Arrangements Living alone and living with spouse only 54.8 45.2 84 Living with the others 60.4 39.6 101 Health Status* Not so healthy 76.9 23.1 26 Healthy 56.8 43.2 118 Very Healthy 48.8 51.2 41 Total 57.8 42.2 185

22

Note: Highlighted are significant variables Source: Working Elderly Survey 2011-2012 Interestingly there were more females than males that are currently self-employed. The majority of the elderly were involved in selling agricultural produce in the market including root crops, vegetables. Livestock rearing and selling were also common among rural elderly

• dwellers. Other agriculture related entrepreneurial activities include selling kava at home and
• handicrafts. The non-agriculture small scale business activities include small canteens that sells

basic food items including; sugar, flour, rice, canned food and biscuits, selling sweets and cigarettes. There were more rural elderly than urban elderly that are engaged in small scale businesses. As expected, there are more elderly engaged in agricultural businesses in the rural areas than in the urban area. In the rural areas, elderly with commercial agricultural businesses are mainly Fijian elderly who has retired and relocated to the village. They tend to use up a portion of their retirement income to establish their business including livestock rearing (pig, dairy and poultry farming). A few of the elderly in urban areas were also involved in non-agricultural businesses including catering businesses, taxi business and money lending. A few female elderly sew and sell their wares including dresses and shirts and they also sell their art and craft work including quilt and pillow covers and screen printing products. There were more Fijians than Indians currently engaged in self-employed businesses which reflects the economic necessity for Fijians to continue to work even after retirement. The majority of the elderly who are currently self-employed are relatively healthy. A few of the elderly persons are working to pay off their loan. It was also notable from the study that many

• f the elderly who are self-employed have multiple businesses currently in operation.

23

Elderly in Unpaid Work Approximately 70 per cent of the elderly in the study are not in paid employment. Elderly women in this category mainly contribute to the family chores providing the space for other family members to go to work. The female elderly are mainly involved in household chores including general house cleaning, cooking and gardening. Elderly Fijian women also take care of their grandchildren while young parents go to work. Few use their spare time in art and craft such as weaving, crochet and screen printing. In Fijian villages elderly women go out fishing and collect firewood for household daily consumption. Elderly women are usually part of village committees including women, health and education committee responsible for the running of the village. Elderly men mainly of Fijian ethnic background are mainly engaged in subsistence crop farming and subsistence livestock farming. The elderly Fijian men would mainly farm for household consumption and the surplus is used to meet community and church obligations. Elderly men are also engaged in home gardening, grass cutting and the general cleaning of the compound. A few use their spare time for basic repairing of their properties. Rural Fijian elderly are usually involved in communal work such as cleaning their villages at least once in a week. Retired elderly persons who have returned to their villages are also engaged in leading development projects and negotiations with government and other stakeholders in the execution of village development projects. Their knowledge, skills and experience are utilised in their own villages or settlements. The elderly would give advice on how best their households could be run in terms of finance, church, disciplining children, etc. Fijian elderly residing in villages reported to be tasked with the leadership roles such as village head men, head of their clans and other traditional and religious responsibilities are very important. They are involved in decision making in their villages. Indian elderly are mostly involved in their religious societies.

24

Sources of Income – Elderly not in paid employment Majority of the elderly are not working and are heavily reliant on subsistence means such as farm produce. Indian elderly are most likely to rent out properties and still manage to save earnings. They are mostly independent of their children and receive remittances occasionally from their children- this is voluntary. Fijian elderly on the other hand are most likely to live from day to day. Among the Fijian elderly daily survival is more important than anything else and saving is not a priority. They spend money on wedding, deaths, traditional occasions - money is spent on their children, communal obligations and relatives and hardly anything is saved. The minority are living on their pensions. Elderly women in rural areas mainly rely on their husband or children for economic support. It was notable that Fijian women in the rural areas did not have any income- they rely totally on their husband or children. The elderly are dependent on their family because they don’t have a

• job. They are uneducated and wouldn’t have secured permanent of skilled jobs in their middle

ages hence have no income saved for retirement. In the rural areas, the elderly who are social welfare recipients make significant contributions to household expenses. It was common among rural Fijians that elderly and their children are both unemployed hence the reliance on subsistence means. Most households’ daily diet is produce

• f subsistence farm including vegetables and root crops. As such minimal income that the

elderly earned whether pension or social welfare fund appear to be very important for their family’s survival. In the urban areas, there is also a tendency for children to rely on their parents. This is mostly common among Fijians. They would dwell with their parents in their parents’ house. Almost three quarters of all elderly both men and women mentioned that they are fully or partially dependent on others to meet their economic needs. They are dependent on their children, relatives, remittances from overseas, spouse, etc. Even though income is not too high, the

25

majority of the elderly mentioned that they contribute to household daily living. Household tend to also rely on the income of the elderly. Indians on the other hand are mostly well established in terms of their source of income or wealth and tend to own properties and are mostly living by themselves. Children are independent and totally detached from their parents. Indian elderly compared to Fijians would have accumulated wealth during their working years and they tend to be self-sufficient.

Social and Economic Correlates of Type of Work among the Elderly in Fiji

This section will examine the relationship between selected social and economic variables with work status of the elderly. Table 12 shows the relationship between the social and economic variables with the work status of the elderly. A logistic regression model was also employed to determine the influence of the social and economic variables on the decision of the elderly to work for wages and salary or self-

• employed. Table 13 shows that age, gender, living arrangements, education and health Status

were all important in explaining the variation in the elderly working for wages and salary or being in self-employment. This result is consistent with Xiuyun (2015) who found that age, gender and health status are important factors in explaining employment status of the elderly in Beijing, China. Table 12: Work Status by the demographic, social and economic variables Socio- economic variables URBAN Rural Total Wages and Salary Self Employe d Total Wage s and Salary Self Employe d Total Wage s and Salary Self Empl

• yed

Total Sex Male 53.2 46.8 47 17.1 82.9 76 30.9 69.1 123 Females 33.3 66.7 60 6.3 93.8 64 19.4 80.6 124 0.039 0.050* 0.037*

26

* Age 55-64yrs 45.8 54.2 72 12.9 87.1 101 26.6 73.4 173 65-74 37.5 662.5 32 12.5 87.5 32 25.0 75.0 64 75yrs+ 0.0 100.0 3 0.0 100.0 7 0.0 100 10 0.238 0.600 0.169 Ethnicity Fijian 49.2 50.8 63 8.4 91.6 107 23.5 76.5 170 Indian 31.8 68.2 44 24.2 75.8 33 28.66 71.4 77 0.073 0.015 0.397 Marital Status Married 42.2 57.8 83 15.5 84.5 97 27.8 72.2 180 Ever Married 47.4 52.6 19 6.5 93.5 31 22.0 78.0 50 Single 20.0 80.0 5 0.0 100.0 12 5.9 94.1 17 0.544 0.165 0.118 Health Status Not so healthy 66.7 33.3 9 0.0 100.0 23 18.8 81.3 32 Healthy 41.1 58.9 73 16.7 83.3 90 27.6 72.4 163 Very Healthy 36.0 64.0 25 7.4 92.6 27 21.2 78.8 52 0.267 0.065 0.436 Living Arrangemen ts Elderly living Alone or with Spouse

• nly

45.2 54.8 31 17.5 82.5 57 27.3 72.7 88 Elderly living with Spouse and at least

• ne child

36.1 63.9 61 6.9 93.1 72 20.3 79.7 133 Elderly living with spouse, at least one child and

• thers

60.0 40.0 15 18.2 81.8 11 42.3 57.7 26 0.223 0.153 0.051 Education

27

Qualification No Education 75.0 25.0 8 9.1 90.9 11 36.8 63.2 19 Up to Primary Level 23.8 76.2 42 9.1 90.9 88 13.8 86.2 130 Up to Secondary Level 31.3 68.8 32 16.2 83.8 37 23.2 76.8 69 Up to Tertiary Level 76.0 24.0 25 50.0 50.8 4 72.4 27.6 29 0.000 *** 0.078* 0.000** * Number of Living Children No Child 38.5 61.5 13 7.4 92.6 27 17.5 82.5 40 1-3 45.8 54.2 59 15.4 84.6 65 29.8 70.2 124 4 and above 37.1 62.9 35 10.4 89.6 48 21.7 78.3 83 0.688 0.511 0.199 Household Size 1-3 30.0 70.0 50 16.2 83.8 74 21.8 78.2 124 >4 52.6 47.4 57 7.6 92.4 66 28.5 71.5 123 0.018 ** 0.118 0.226 Source: Working Elderly Survey 2011-2012 Gender Differences in Work There are more employed male elderly than female. This is consistent with studies Xiuyun (2015) and taken by Audinaryana (2000). There is more elderly male working for wages and salary than being self-employed in the urban areas (Table 12). In contrast, there are more female elderly that are self-employed than working for wages and salary. In the rural areas, the majority are engaged in self-employed businesses than working for wages or salary. Women living alone have a higher incidence of work participation compared to those living with spouse

• r others indicating the necessity to work and for survival. The results are consistent with the

multivariate results (Table 13) where gender came out as a significant variable in explaining the

28

variation in work among the elderly. The results shows that males compared to females are more likely to be working for wages and salary then being self-employed.

29

Working Old Work participation among the elderly in Fiji decline as they age. Work participation is the highest among the youngest old (55-64 years). This is consistent with statistics on labour force participation of population aged fifty-five years and above in Fiji in both 1996 and 2007. Age also came out highly significant in the multivariate analysis (Table 13). The multivariate result shows that elderly who are sixty-five years and above compared to elderly who are sixty-four years and less are more likely to be working for wages and salary than being self-employed. The workforce participation among the oldest olds is highly insignificant. Ethnicity and Work There seem to be more Fijians engaged in self-employed businesses compared to elderly

• Indian. Elderly Indian in urban areas seems to be self-sufficient and rely on their savings and or

wealth that they have accumulated during their working years. However, the difference in the number of elderly that are working for wages or salary and self-employed among the Indian is lower than among the Fijian elderly. In the urban areas there are almost equal number of Fijian elderly working wages or salary and self-employed. Health as a Determinant of Work Health is also very important determinant of work among the elderly in Fiji. The working elderly are most likely to be relatively healthy. They are highly mobile and tend to be engaged with what is happening around them. Most of the working elderly indicated that only poor health status would stop them from working, otherwise they would continue working. Health has a significant effect on labour force participation of the elderly in India (Pandey, 2009). Pandey (2009) further indicated that in order to keep enough supply of elderly in the labour market, sufficient health care is necessary. The multivariate analysis shows that elderly that are not so healthy compared to very healthy elderly are less likely to be working for wages and salary than being self- employed (Table 13). Elderly who are healthy compared to very healthy elderly are less likely to be working for wages

30

and salary than being self-employed. Formal work requires that the elderly to be physically and mentally fit in order to work and this is usually a condition of their work contracts. A few of the elderly have stopped working because of injury from work. Elderly who are single by marital status and suffered injury from work have mainly lived with their children or relatives because they have not saved enough due to inadequate earnings during their working years. Superannuation fund has also been used to meet earlier family/personal obligations. Disability among the elderly in Fiji is mainly chracterised by movement disability and for many this is also associated with the nature of their work during their middle age. Seniloli & Tawake (2015) indicated that the type of work the elderly did before retirement was most likely to affect their health. Many of the Fijian elderly in rural areas particularly women who are single or ever married by marital status are in co- residence because of their poor health and economic inability to look after themselves. These would be elderly in the oldest age category mainly suffering from mainly arthritis that would affect their ability to move and to pursue work or daily chores. Munsur, Tareque and Rahuman (2010) specified that majority of the elderly women in Bangladesh are widowed, illiterate, have no education and income, economically dependent, living with married children and unhealthy suffer from arthritis related illness and are taking treatment from village doctors. Elderly engaged in daily chores for example gardening, farming, fishing and other unpaid work mentioned that the physical work that they do daily is a form of exercise and keeps them fit. Elderly living alone Versus Elderly living with others by Work Status The majority of the elderly that are working are living with their spouse and their children. In the urban areas, the elderly are looking after the welfare of the household. Few retirees use their pension to meet their daily needs. Most of the elderly working for wages and salary to provide care and support for their children and their children’s family. This is consistent with multivariate results (Table 13) which shows elderly living with spouse and at least one child

31

compared to elderly living with others are most likely to work for wages and salary than being self-employed. Interestingly, the multivariate analysis also revealed that married elderly compared to the singles are less likely to be working for wages and salary. A significant proportion of the elderly that are working are living alone or with spouse only. The elderly persons living alone are mostly working to support themselves. Work participation of women living alone is much higher than women living with spouse or is in other types of living

• arrangement. Men living alone do not have high work participation. This might means that men

living alone have other sources of income while women living alone would be mainly due to poverty and lack of other choices. The elderly living with their relatives and particularly elderly age sixty-five years and above were mostly full time home makers and are totally dependent as they have no source of

• income. In the cases for the oldest old their children provide all physical, emotional care and

provide for daily living. It was more common among the Fijian elderly to live with their children and children’s family. In many cases the elderly owns the property – the house but does not make decision. Decision lies in the hands of working members which is usually the children. Decision making within the household is mainly determined by the younger and working family members (Seniloli & Tawake, 2014). Fijian elderly also tend to rely on remittances from their children which are provided on an occasional basis. The Indian elderly were most likely to live alone and are self-sufficient- they would have accumulated enough wealth and have saved for

• retirement. They live in luxury homes and would have other source of incomes such as rental

from other properties or from investments. Education and Work Table 12 shows that the majority of the elderly who are working for wages and salary are educated up to secondary and tertiary level. The study conducted by Audinaryana (2000) shows that education beyond primary school has a positive impact upon labor participation uniformly among all elderly. This is highly explained in the urban areas. In the rural areas the majority of the working elderly are only had primary qualifications and are mostly self-employed. Elderly

32

working for wages and salary in the rural areas are those mostly working in sugar cane plantations or employed in casual work for example security guards and house maids. Area of Residence and Work Elderly in rural areas were mostly engaged in self-employment compared to urban elderly. Urban elderly on the other hand were most likely to work for wages and salary. This result is consistent with the multivariate analysis (Table 13) which shows that urban elderly compared to rural elderly are most likely to be working for wages and salary than being self-employed. In urban areas, female elderly working for a wage or salary were mostly pursuing basic administrative work such as secretariat work and they had low educational attainment without any special skills. Elderly men in the urban areas were mostly engaged in trade skills type of employment mainly carpentry work. Table 13: Results of the Binary Logistic Regression Analysis on the Work Status of the Elderly in Fiji Wages and Salary vs. Self Employed Variables ERC SE OR Age** 0.064 0.098 1.066 Gender*** 0.392 Females (Ref)

• 1.000

Males 1.131 0.392 3.098 Ethnicity Indians (Ref)

• 1.000

Fijians 0.018 0.423 1.018 Marital Status Single (Ref)

• 1.000

Married*

• 1.769

0.985 0.171** Ever Married

• 1.576

1.060 0.207 Area of Residence*** Rural (Ref)

• 1.000

Urban 1.518 0.421 4.563*** Education Qualification*** Tertiary (Ref)

• 1.000

33

No Education 0.776 0.751 2.172 Up to Primary Level 2.655 0.588 14.225*** Up to Secondary Level 2.345 0.609 10.436*** Household Size

• 0.096

0.098 0.909 Number of living children

• 0.155

0.101 0.857 Living Arrangements* Elderly living with spouse, at least one child and others(Ref)

• 1.000

Elderly living alone or living with spouse only 0.427 0.690 1.533 Elderly living with spouse and at least

• ne child

1.499 0.616 4.475* Health Status Very Healthy (Ref)

• 1.000

Not so healthy

• 0.645

0.726 0.524 Healthy

• 1.019

0.515 0.361** Constant 0.164 0.633 0.849 Reference Category: Self Employed Elderly

• 2 log likelihood

194.213 Cox and Snell R Square 0.289 Nagelkerke R Square 0.427 Pearson Chi Square: 84.128 Pearson Sig: 0.000 Notes: ERC= Estimated Regression Coefficient SE= Standard Error of ERC OR=Odds Ratio Ref= Reference Category Level of Significance: ***P<0.01, **p<0.05, *p<0.10 Source: Working Elderly Survey 2011-2012

34

Discussion

Two of the aims of the study is to determine the types and patterns of work of the elderly in Fiji, and to identify the characteristics of the elderly who work. The result of the study is consistent with the conflict theory of productive ageing. The elderly with poor economic or financial status in Fiji were most likely to work for wages. Most of these elderly persons are males with secondary or less level of education, 55-64 years of age, relatively healthy, living in household of more than four people, urban dwellers and engaged in elementary occupations. Others especially Fijian women are self-employed. The elderly in many instances are the financial backbone of their households with their meagre pension, social welfare benefit or

• earnings. Many of these elderly people have retired from their occupations as teachers, police
• fficers and have had to work in elementary occupations to make ends meet resulting in

slippage in status and income. Work is a necessity for these people. Many of these elderly are working because of the need to support their family, to survive daily and meet personal and societal obligation. These elderly persons feel financially squeezed to stop working. Some of the elderly in Fiji are working for wages and salary and are mostly working as professionals in the private sector, regional or international organizations where the retirement age is higher than the Government retirement age. Their salaries are often much higher than their counterpart in the civil service. Those who have retire are mainly employed on short-term as consultants when work is available. Work is not a necessity for these elderly people. The principal aim of the study is to assess the magnitude of effects of each of the determinants

• f work among the elderly in Fiji. Age, gender, living arrangements, education and health status

were all important in explaining the work status of the elderly in Fiji. More males work for wages, more females are self-employed. As expected women living alone, ever-married women and those never married work. The elderly over the age of 64 years and those who are not in good health are not in paid employment. In addition those elderly with low level of education

35

work after 55 years of age because of low salary and below the poverty line. The result of this study is consistent with other studies (Xiuyun, 2015; Audinaryana, 2000). Interestingly ethnic Indians tend to have saved for retirement and live on their rental property and their investments. They therefore do not work. Some retired ethnic Fijians have also invested their hard earned savings on their own taxi business or livestock farming. However, many Fijians on the other hand because of low educational attainment cannot save for retirement as their wages are too low. Many of them in their working life can be categorized as the working poor. It is imperative therefore for many people in this category to continue to work. Majority of the elderly are not in paid employment. They do work but are unpaid in their homes doing such work as baby sitting, general cleaning, gardening, fishing, and collecting firewood allowing family members to work for wages and at the same time contributing to the household economy. These activities keep many of the elderly active and fit. In addition many retirees provide their knowledge, skills and experience in the development and welfare of the village.

Conclusion

The main aim of this study is to examine the association between the socio-economic variables and labour force participation of the elderly in Fiji. It is evident from the analysis that the poor are working because it is a necessity whereas for elderly with stable financial status, work is a

• choice. A significant proportion of the elderly are involved in the informal sector mainly self-

employment in very small businesses. These elderly have family and financial obligations to

• meet. For the elderly with high income capacity, working is a choice and is not really necessary.

36

It was noticeable that work participation decreases with increase in financial status for elderly in Fiji. When the effects of each social and economic variables were taken together on the type

• f work the elderly are engaged in, it was noticed that age, gender, area of residence,

education qualification, living arrangements and health status are all important in explaining the variation in the elderly working for wages and salary or being self-employed. The salient feature of the life of the elderly in Fiji generally shows poor status for most of them within their family and society. Most elderly persons have no income and totally dependent on

• thers and have no autonomy on some aspects of their lives. There is lack of opportunity which

is reflected in lack of education, unemployment and lack of economic assets. They are not impoverished but life is a struggle over such things as access to medicines, health centres and the demands of the church, family and traditional obligations. Much needs to be undertaken by the family, society and government to support the increasing numbers of elderly persons in Fiji.

Bibliography

Aboderin, I. (2005) ‘Conditionality and Limits of Filial Obligation’. Oxford Institute of Ageing Working Papers. Working Paper Number WP205.Retrieved 12 May 2011 from http://www.ageing.ox.ac.uk/files/workingpaper_205.pdf Audinarayana, N. (2000) ‘Factors affecting the work participation of elderly: an empirical investigation’. Paper presented at the Millennium Conference on Population, Development and Environment Nexus, New Delhi, India (14-16 February). Blau, D. (1998) ’Labour Force Dynamics of Older Married Couples’ Journal of Labour Economics 16(3). Retrieved 04 June 2011 from http://www.jstor.org/stable/pdfplus/10.1086/209900.pdf?acceptTC=true Campolietti, M. (2002) ‘Disability and the Labour Force Participation of Older Men in Canada. Labour Economics, 9, 405-432. Chang, T.P. ‘Productive Ageing’. Asia Population Studies Series, 141(3). Retrieved 15 May 2011 from http://www.un.org/Depts/escap/pop/ap55141/chap3.html

37

Clark, R,L and Anker, R. (1990) ‘Labour force participation rates of older persons: An international comparison’. International Labour Review, 129 (2). Costa, D. (1998) ‘The Evolution of Retirement: An American History 1880-1990’. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Cotter, D.A.,Hermsen, J.M. and Vanneman, R. (2002) ‘Gendered Opportunities for Work: Effects

• n employment in later life’. Journal of Research on Ageing: Retrieved 15 June 2011

from http://www.bsos.umd.edu/socy/vanneman/papers/Cotter02.pdf Cowgill, D.O., and L.D. Holmes (eds. (1972) ‘Ageing and Modernization’. New York: Appleton- Century-Crofts. Creswell, J.W., and Clark. V.I.P. (2006) ‘Designing and Conducting Mixed Methods Research’ (2nd Ed.). California: Sage Publications Deaton, A and Paxson, C, H. ‘Patterns of Aging in Thailand and Cote d’Ivoire’ in D. Wise, ed. Retrieved 04 June 2011 from http://www.princeton.edu/rpds/papers/Deaton_Paxson_Patterns_of_Aging_in_Th ailand_and_Cote_dIvoire.pdf Debrand, T. and Lengagne P. (2008) ‘Working Conditions and Health of European Older Workers’. Document de travail Working Paper No 8. Retrieved 04 Jun 2011 from http://www.irdes.fr/EspaceAnglais/Publications/WorkingPapers/DT8WorkingCond HealthEuropOldWorkers.pdf Devaney, S. A. (1995) ‘Life Course, Private Pension and Financial Wellbeing’. The American behavioural Scientist, 39(2), 172-185. Fiji Islands Bureau of Statistics. (2015) ‘Employment Statistics- Number of Wage and salary Earners’. Retrieved from http://www.statsfiji.gov.fj/index.php/social/9-social- statiscs/social-general/143-employment-statistics Fiji Islands Bureau of Statistics. (2015) ‘ Summary of Key Demographic and Socio-Economic Indicators for the Total Population by Sex in 2007, 1996 and 1986’. Retrieved from http://www.statsfiji.gov.fj/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=226:s

38

ummary-of-key-demographic-and-socio-economic-indicators-for-the-total- population-by-sex-in-2007-1996-and-1986@catid=68:social-statistics Fiji Islands Bureau of Statistics. (2008) ‘Census 2007 results: population size, growth, structure and distribution’. Statistical News, No. 45. Fiji Island Bureau of Statistics. (1996) ‘Fiji Islands Population and Housing Census Report ‘. Gouldner, A.W. (1960) ‘The norm of reciprocity: a preliminary statement’. American Sociological Review, 25 (161-178). Merton R.K. (1968) ‘Manifest and latent function’. Social Theory and Social Structure, 3rd edn. New York: Free Press. Munnell, Alicia H and April Yanyuan Wu. (2012) ‘ARE AGING BABY BOOMERS SQUEEZING YOUNG WORKERS OUT OF JOBS?’ Working Paper. Chestnut Hill, MA: Center for Retirement Research at Boston College. Retrieved from http://crr.bc.edu/wp- content/uploads/2012/09/IB_12-18-508.pdf Munsur, Ahmed Mohammad; Tareque, Ismail; and Rahman, K. M. Mustafizur. (2010) ‘Determinants of Living Arrangements, Health Status and Abuse among Elderly Women: A Study of Rural Naogaon District, Bangladesh’. Journal of International Women's Studies, 11(4), 162-176. Available at: http://vc.bridgew.edu/jiws/vol11/iss4/12 Pandey, M. (2009) ‘Labor Force Participation among Indian Elderly: Does Health Matter’ ASARC Working Paper, Institute of Economic Growth, Delhi-110007, India Pang L., Brauw A. and Rozelle S. (2004) ‘Working Until Dropping: Employment Behaviour of the Elderly in Rural China’. Retrieved 27 May 2011 from http://web.williams.edu/Economics/wp/debrauwrozelle_cj_elderly.pdf Ruggles, S. (1987) ‘Prolonged Connections: The Rise of the Extended Family in Nineteenth- Century England and America’. Madison: University of Wisconsin. Seniloli, K., & Tawake, R. (2015) ‘The Health Status of the Silver Generation in Fiji’. The Journal

• f Pacific Studies, 35 (3), 168-187

39

Seniloli, K., & Tawake, R. (2014) ‘The Living Arrangements of the Elderly in Fiji’. The Journal of Pacific Studies, 34, (2), 129-149. Schuller, T. (1987) ‘Second adolescence? The transition from paid employment’ Work, Employment and Society, 1 (3). UNFPA Country Report. (2011) ‘The Status of the Elderly in Tamil Nadu, 2011’. Retrieved from: http://countryoffice.unfpa.org/india/drive/BKPAI_TamilNadu.pdf World Population Ageing 1950-2050. (2002). Department of Economic and Social Affairs. Population Division. Xiuyun, G. (2015) ‘Influencing Factors Study on Elderly Employment Status’. Studies in Sociology

• f Science, 6(1), 30-34