"Tourism is no t rivial phenomenon. I t is a visible result - - PowerPoint PPT Presentation

Tourism, technology and (post)industrial society

"Tourism is no t rivial phenomenon. I t is a visible result of t he f our great waves of t echnology which have changed social geography of t he world since 1800: t he railway, t he st eamship, t he car and t he aeroplane”

• Leisure developed as a release f rom f act ory

discipline in t he ninet eent h cent ury, which it self ushered in a t ransit ion of product ive act ivit y f rom t ask orient ed t o t ime orient ed.

• Tourism is a consequence of f undament al

t echnological and st ruct ural changes wit hin post indust rial societ y

Thompson, E. 1998: "Time and Work Discipline" in The Green Travel Guide (ed. G Neale). London:

Eart hscan. Also in P ast and Present 38 (1997)

Tourism, modernity and postmodernism

• Fundament al changes in t he st ruct ure of capit alism
• I nnovat ion, t echnology, product ion, t ransport and

communicat ions

• Longwave t heory and t he t hird wave - ‘post indust rial’?
• Changed relat ions bet ween rich and poor count ries -

‘post colonial’?

• Post f ordism, f lexible specialisat ion and ‘j ust - in- t ime’
• Commodif icat ion of places and cult ures.
• Time not now passed, but spent .
• The t ourist phenomenon as a manif est at ion of

post modernism?

‘Three waves’

1750 1850 1950 Agricultural I ndustrial Service Primary (Agrarian) Economy I ndustria l Economy Tertiary (Service, ?postindustrial) Economy

Psychosocial signif icance of tourism

Why do we go? 2 views of t ourist ;

• as ‘pilgrim’; people perceive a lack of meaning in t heir

everyday lives and t heref ore search f or aut hent icit y is

• t her (usually more primit ive) societ ies, or in t he past

(MacCannell 1976 The Tourist : A New Theory of t he Leisure Class. New York: Schocken)

• as ent ert ained; t ourist s are aware of , expect and are

sat isf ied by superf icial and inaut hent ic event s and experiences - ' pseudo-event s' (Boorstin 1964: The I mage: a Guide t o Pseudo-

Event s in America. New York: Harper) and ' hyper-realit y' (Eco 1986: Travels in Hyper- Realit y. London: Picador).

“Tourist s don’t j ust go somewhere else; t hey want t o be someone else” Taras Grescoe in The I ndependent Review Thursday 15 J uly 2004 p4

Market trends

• Tradit ional demand levelling of f
• New market s (e.g. EC & SE Europe)
• Market segregat ion, dif f erent iat ion
• Compet it ive advant age
• Local awareness and det erminat ion
• ‘Niche’ t ourism

Cont rast ing paradigms f or t ourism

Liberal- conservative (WTO, I UCN)

• rising living st andards
• disposable incomes
• ageing populat ion
• leisure t ime - t o spend
• great er int erest in

‘t he ot her’ - t he global village

• underst anding,

cit izenship Radical- ethical (Oxf am, Tourism Concern)

• all of t hese - in t he

advanced met ropolit an count ries and t hird world elit es, but also

• increasing disparit ies

bet ween rich and poor

• t ourism a spat ially

dependant relat ionship (service sect or, neocolonialism)

Sour ce: I UCN/ Eagles et al 2002

Sour ce: I UCN/ Eagles et al 2002

Tourism I ssues

• “I am a t raveller, you are a visit or, t hey

are t ourist s” Anon

• “Of all t ourist s, t he most vulgar, ill-bred,
• f f ensive and loat hsome is t he Brit ish

t ourist ” Revd Francis Kilvert 1840-1879

• “A spect re is haunt ing our planet : t he

spect re of t ourism” Croall 1995: 5

Tourism, (ecotourism) and air travel

*f rom London, UK Means Distance (km) Cost Carbon emissions (tonnes)*

Package holiday in Benidorm, Spain Airplane 2,520 £ 400 1.2 Whale wat ching in NSW Aust ralia Airplane 34,020 £ 2,000 11.9 Family holiday in Disneyland, USA Airplane 17,410 £ 2,500 6 Camping in Devon, England Train 664 £ 500 0.073

*carbon emissions = t ravel only. Source: Simon Calder The I ndependent Review Thursday 15 J uly 2004

Carbon of f set s

a genuine attempt (on the part of tour operators and individual tourists) to mitigate the damage caused by international air travel and/or offer travellers the

• pportunity to do so?
• f f set s are growing; adopt ed

by government as a policy t ool

• passengers should have t he

right t o choose

• does not reduce nat ional/

airline compet it iveness

• air t ravel only one of many

input s t o global warming anyway

• r greenwash; a cynical political

attempt by the airline industry to frustrate any tax on aviation fuel, a marketing ploy by tourist enterprises and a sop to the consciences of would-be ‘green’ travellers?

• mainly volunt ary, limit ed t ake-

up

• cash only part ially applied t o

mit igat ion, which is inef f ect ive on a global scale

• air t r avel is Nox (+more) not

j ust CO2

• problem should be addressed

at source - r educe air t ravel

Carbon of f set s - pro

A genuine attempt (on the part of tour operators and individual tourists) to mitigate the damage caused by international air travel and/or offer travellers the opportunity to do so?

• Kyot o 6t h Conf erence (2000) agrees
• of f set s are growing; adopt ed by government as

a policy t ool

• passengers should have t he right t o choose
• does not reduce nat ional/ airline

compet it iveness

• air t ravel only one of many input s t o global

warming anyway

Carbon of f set s - con

Greenwash; a cynical attempt by the airline industry to frustrate any tax on aviation fuel, a marketing ploy by tourist enterprises and a sop to the consciences of would-be ‘green’ travellers?

• Can’t balance (inf init e) f ossil f uel out put s against (f init e)

sequest rat ion in living mat t er

• ‘business as usual’ dumps problems on t he poor - N

count ries t o meet proj ect s by proj ect s in S

• cash only part ially applied t o mit igat ion, which is

inef f ect ive on a global scale

• air t ravel is Nox (+more) not j ust CO2
• mainly volunt ary, limit ed t ake-up
• problem should be addressed at source - reduce air t ravel

Slovene domest ic t ourism 2005

• 59% of >

15yrs pop on a t ot al of 1.6m privat e (4+ night s) t rips = 2.6%^2004

• 20% only in Slo; 60% only abroad; 19%

Slo + abroad

• Only 12% t rips involve t ravel agent s
• 40% pop >

15 yrs no t rip. Reasons: 37%

f inancial, 25% ‘no t ime’, 18% healt h, 13% ‘pref er home’. 4% day t rips or secondary home.

St at Of f ice Rep Slo 2006

I mport ance of cont ext

• Legislat ive and inst it ut ional - what legal

prot ect ion exist s, what mechanisms f or enf orcement and are t hey ef f ect ive?

• Economic and social - what is t he nat ure of t ourism,

why do t hey come, are environment al f eat ures ef f ect ively valued and managed?

• Ecological and cult ural - what is t he int rinsic value
• f herit age f eat ures and how robust are t hey?
• Blah Blah

Def init ions and neologisms

• ‘new’ t ourism
• ‘alt ernat ive’ t ourism
• ‘advent ure’ t ourism
• ‘nat ure’ t ourism
• ‘cult ural’ t ourism
• ‘herit age’ t ourism
• ‘green’ t ourism
• ‘responsible’ t ourism
• ‘et hical’ t ourism
• ‘sof t ’ t ourism
• ‘ecot ourism’
• ‘appropriat e’ t ourism
• sust ainable t ourism

Ecotourism

"a f orm of t ourism inspired primarily by t he nat ural hist ory of an area, including it s indigenous cult ures. The ecot ourist visit s relat ively undeveloped areas in t he spirit of appreciat ion, part icipat ion and sensit ivit y... pract ices a non- consumpt ive use of wildlif e and nat ural resources and cont ribut es t o t he visit ed area t hrough labor or f inancial means aimed at direct ly benef it ing t he conservat ion of t he sit e and t he economic well-being of t he local resident s...” Zif f er, 1989 quot ed in Goodwin, 1996: 279 "... is a part icular f orm of t ourism dependant on high qualit y experiences in t he nat ural environment during which t he t ourist is provided wit h opport unit ies (t hrough an appropriat e int erpret at ion programme) t o learn about t he nat ural environment and as a result become more commit t ed t o environment al conservat ion... Ecot ourism can be seen as an agent f or personal and social change”

(Markwell, K and B Weiler. 1999: "Ecot ourism and int erpret at ion" in Cont emporary I ssues in Herit age and Environment al I nt erpret at ion. Problems and Prospect s (eds. D Uzzell and R Ballant yne). London: The St at ionery Of f ice pp. 98-111)

Ecotourism critique

• "a niche market f or environment ally aware t ourist s who

are int erest ed in observing nat ure"

Wheat 1994*

• "an economic process where rare and beaut if ul

ecosyst ems are market ed int ernat ionally t o at t ract visit ors"

St eele 1993*

• "...j ust as suspect as many of t he product s t art ed up

wit h green packaging at your local grocery st ore"

Wight 1994*

• "The t ourism indust ry has been quick t o exploit t he

market ing value of ecot ourism, t he more so since it s meaning is unclear and t here is no requirement f or t he

• perat or t o do more t han alt er t he packaging"

Goodwin, 1996: 279 f rom which *are quot ed

• "seized upon by opport unist ic t our operat ors who

merely re-label t heir product s as a market ing ploy"

Cat er and Lowman, 1995:4

Ecotourism critique

“I t is perhaps no coincidence t hat much of t he debat e concerning what const it ut es ecot ourism has it s parallel in t he weight y debat e surrounding t he def init ion of sust ainable development . Bot h t end t o be overworked t erms, neat ly co-opt ed by polit ical and business int erest s t o conf er an aura of respect abilit y t o t heir int erest s” Cat er, int roduct ion p 5 in Cat er and Lowman 1995 "Call it alt ernat ive, responsible or sust ainable, t he desired component s are now f amiliar. The t raveller is pref erred t o t he t ourist , t he individual t o t he group, specialist operat ors rat her t han large f irms, indigenous accommodat ion t o mult inat ional hot el chains, small not large - essent ially good versus bad... perhaps t he t rue sit uat ion is bet t er expressed as t he good guise versus t he bad guys” "...what proport ion of t hese lat t er day t ravellers are t ruly independent in t heir t ravels? Like it or not t hey all ut ilise much of t he same inf rast ruct ure as t he organised t ourist s and are part of t he same syst em" Wheeler 1992, quot ed in Goodwin, 1996: 279

Fundamental truths about tourism?

• Unlike ot her indust ries, generat es income by import ing

client s rat her t han by export ing it s product

• I s a resource dependant indust ry
• Must compet e f or limit ed resources f or it s survival
• Consumes resources, creat es wast e, has specif ic

inf rast ruct ural needs

• Has t he abilit y t o overconsume if unchecked
• I s privat e- sect or dominat ed wit h invest ment policies

based primarily on prof it

• I s a mult if acet ed indust ry and hence almost impossible

t o cont rol

• Tourist s are consumers, not ant hropologist s
• Tourism is ent ert ainment

Source:modif ied f rom McKercher, B (1993)

Ecotourism

"...t he t erm ' ecot ourism' it self has no consist ent def init ion” Hall and Kinnaird, 1995: 111 "Ecot ourism needs t o be t ight ly def ined if it is t o benef it nat ure conservat ion. Prot ect ed area managers should consider how t hey can t ake cont rol of nat ure t ourism t o t he parks t hey manage and convert it int o ecot ourism f or t he benef it of conservat ion and t he livelihoods of local people" Goodwin, 1996:277

So: def init ion a key crit erion – means clear art iculat ion of ways and means

Sustainable Tourism Def initions

“Tourism development shall be based on crit eria of sust ainabilit y… Sust ainable development is a guided process which envisages global management of resources so as t o ensure t heir viabilit y, t hus enabling our nat ural and cult ural capit al t o be preserved”

World Tourism Organisat ion 1995

Sust ainable Tourism "meet s t he needs of present t ourist s and host regions while prot ect ing and enhancing opport unit y f or t he f ut ure" Goodwin et al. 1997 “Tourist act ivit ies are sust ainable when t hey are carried out in such a way as t o f lourish in t he t ourist area f or an unlimit ed period, wit hout alt ering t he environment (nat ural, social or cult ural) and when t hey neit her obst ruct nor inhibit t he development of ot her social and economic act ivit ies” World Commission on Environment and

Development 1987

Sustainable Tourism Critique

“Sust ainable development is a global concept , and implies achievabilit y only at t he global level. To apply sust ainable development as a concept at a sect or level is inappropriat e as specif ic sect ors can never achieve t rue sust ainabilit y or sust ainable development in isolat ion f rom ot her sect ors and t he global environment . Sust ainabilit y can be t hought of at a sect or level only in t erms of a level of sust ainabilit y…a t ourism ent erprise cannot be sust ainable on it s own because it is t oo dependent on and int er-relat ed t o

• t her sect ors”

But ler 2000 quot ed in Schmidt 2002

‘Responsible’ (Ethical?) Tourism

“WWF believes t hat ‘sust ainable t ourism’ is current ly an unachievable ideal, not least because of t he signif icant cont ribut ion t hat air t ravel makes t o climat e change. I t is t heref ore more usef ul t o t hink about ‘responsible t ourism’ wit hin t he cont ext of a wider sust ainable development st rat egy”

WWF 2001 & 2003

I ssues:

• Environment al impact s (t ravel as unnecessary consumpt ion and

pollut ion)?

• Polit ical economy (t ourism as a manif est at ion of unequal/ dependent

development and power)?

• Pragmat ism vs perf ect ion (at t empt t o improve but legit imat e an

unsust ainable syst em or crit ique f rom wit hout ?

Sustainable/ responsible Tourism

involves:

Tour companies,

• rganisat ions

Tourist Host s

‘Responsible’ Tourism- Tour company

“… t he Federat ion of Tour Operat ors has been involved in a f ruit f ul mult i-st akeholder process f acilit at ed by t he UK government …One

• f t he result s is t o set up a Responsible Tourism Unit whose role

is t o encourage responsible t ourism pract ices among all cont ract ing part ies. That is t o say, t our operat ors, cust omers, st af f and sub-cont ract ed suppliers (accommodat ion, ground handlers &c). We t hink t his is probably a world f irst ” I ssues: ‘Responsibilit y’

• a charge on prof it - r equires a level playing f ield secured by

ext ernal regulat ion t o allow compet it ive survival OR

• A vehicle t o niche market ing in which f irms compet e f or

excellence and hence market share, t o enhance prof it ?

Shades of sust ainabilit y - t our company

Sell what ever t o whoever t o maximise t urnover and prof it Niche market t o ecologically aware t ourist s (f or deserving host communit ies?) Moderat e worst excesses (at least in public, f or publicit y ef f ect ) Not f or prof it

• rganisat ion

‘Responsible’ Tourism- tourist

I ssues: ‘Responsibilit y’

• A self imposed rest raint on pleasure (in which

case why not st ay at home?) OR

• An enhancement of t he visit or experience -

t he f eel-good f act or (in which case who benef it s?) OR

• A genuine part nership bet ween t ourist and

t oured?

Shades of sust ainabilit y - t ourist

Go where, when and how I want – if I can af f ord it . This holiday is f or me East , west , home’s best ; all t ravel and t ourism is damaging t o them, there Enj oy nat ure, local cult ures Travel by rail, road or f oot – never by plane Take not hing but phot ographs, leave not hing but f oot print s Spend at t he bot t om

• f t he producer chain

‘Responsible’ Tourism- host/ destination

I ssues:

• Can/ why should host s bot her wit h impact s or

issues beyond boundaries - sust ainabilit y limit ed concept ually and geographically

• Can benef it s be secured wit hout advant ages

which lead t o int ernal inequalit ies?

Shades of sust ainabilit y – ‘host ’

More t he merrier – mass means muck but money And only accept non damaging t ravel But prot ect t he nat ural and cult ural t ourist resource But wit h care, and make it last Generat e income f or local economy Fewer but bet t er – go f or qualit y and spend Minimise t ourist dependancy

Solcava

Obj ect ives of Logarska Lt d

ADOPTED BY THE FOUNDERS

• Development to protect the

environment & be based on natural potentials, tradition and the local population

• Ecotourism must be given special

attention – focus on traditional activities, products and services

• Accommodation to be limited to c.

present number of beds – with possible modernisation

• Tourist motor traffic to be

progressively replaced by other forms of mobility

• Additional tourist activities must be

adapted to protected areas ADDED SUBSEQUENTLY

• To encourage dispersed

development of tourist facilities in the wider area

• To protect real estate from

being sold off as holiday homes

• To develop the necessary

tourist infrastructure in the Solcava village and thus relieve the protected areas

• To encourage the setting-up of

the Kamnik Savinja Alps regional park for a more efficient protection of natural and cultural heritage, better promotion of geographical identity and creation of new jobs

“Tourism can be a tremendous asset within a balanced rural economy, if it can be managed to achieve inward investment for the community and not dominate other economic sectors, in this case forestry and agriculture. So often however tourism results in an extractive industry, feeding the profits to external investors, providing poorly paid jobs for just a short season and degrading the natural environment that motivates people to visit in the first instance”

(P Dyke, 2004 Solcavska)

Butler’s model of the hypothetical evolution of a tourist area (Pearce 1989)

Time Numbers of t ourist s

rejuvenation stabilisation decline stagnation consolidation development exploration implementation

PAs and sust ainabilit y

• Living within environmental

limits: Prot ect ed areas lead in prot ect ing England’s f inest count ryside, it s rich nat ural and cult ural herit age, and helping t o conserve t he wider environment f or t he benef it of present and f ut ure generat ions.

• Using sound science responsibly:

Prot ect ed area management is ‘evidence based’. I t draws on exist ing dat a relat ing t o t he prot ect ed landscape and t he wider environment , ident if ies – and t ries t o f ill – any gaps, and monit ors t he changes in landscape condit ion so t hat management can be adj ust ed t o secure long-t erm

• bj ect ives.
• Ensuring a strong, healthy and just society:

Prot ect ed areas help t o ensure t hat t he diverse needs of mult icult ural societ y are met , by ext ending opport unit ies f or recreat ion, underst anding and enj oyment f or resident s and visit ors alike, and developing ef f ect ive links bet ween t he count ryside and urban areas.

• Achieving a sustainable economy: Prot ect ed

areas cont ribut e great ly t o t he well-being of local communit ies and t he economic vit alit y of t heir

• regions. They have been leaders in promot ing

sust ainable product ion, helping t o develop more robust and inclusive rural economies

• Promoting good governance: The management of

prot ect ed areas relies on t he part icipat ion of all st akeholders involving part nerships bet ween public, privat e and volunt ary sect ors based on a shared vision and agreed policies, wit h implement at ion underpinned by local knowledge and expert ise

(Historical) approaches to conserving nature

(earliest)

• SPECI ES PROTECTI ON
• HABI TAT MANAGEMENT
• LAND USE PLANNI NG
• CREATI VE CONSERVATI ON

(most recent)

Percept ions of nat ure (and response st rat egies)

• Nat ure is f ragile, balance easily dist urbed
• Et hically wrong t o int erf ere
• Nat ure is robust , resilient , wit h -ve

f eedback and repair mechanisms

• Human act ion does not raise et hical issues
• I nt ernal homeost asis has limit s - balance of

+ve and -ve f eedback

• Human act ion requires underst anding and

planning

Biocentric? Technocentric? Anthropocentric?