Nationalism Lecture 7: Unification and Separatist Nationalism - - PowerPoint PPT Presentation

Nationalism

Lecture 7: Unification and Separatist Nationalism

• Prof. Lars-Erik Cederman

Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH) Center for Comparative and International Studies (CIS) Seilergraben 49, Room G.2 lcederman@ethz.ch http://www.icr.ethz.ch/teaching/nationalism Assistant: Kimberly Sims, CIS, Room E 3, k-sims@northwestern.edu

Nationalism’s Three Time- Zones in Europe

State-Framed Nationalism French Revolution Unification Nationalism Separatist Nationalism

Unification nationalism

Common state? No Yes Common nation? Phase I: Nation- formation Phase II: State- building State- formation blocked No

Central & Southern Europe:

• Germany
• Italy

Yes

Historical pre-conditions of unification nationalism

The era of consciously articulated nationalism triggered by the French Revolution:

• Early state-formation blocked by outside

powers and internal fragmentation

• Nation-formation outside state

framework

• Late state-building through mix of

conquest and voluntary merger

Differences from state-framed nationalism

• cultural meditation
• identities and boundaries deeply contested
• sudden mobilization

Because of tricky geography and external intervention, these areas were dominated by small city-states and pre-modern principalities under a layer of imperial and religious authority

“Risorgimento” nationalism

Reaction to French Revolution and Napoleonic wars: – ideational revolution: democracy + popular sovereignty – direct Napoleonic rule – French military model – Vienna 1815: elimination of small geopolitical entities

Which came first? Nation or State?

Common state? Common nation? No Yes No Yes Radical constructivism Essentialist theory

Cultural nation?

The German Case

• Failed state-

formation

• Charlemagne united

most of Central and

• W. Europe in 9th c.

but then the empire split

• Faced with

invasions, the Holy Roman Empire developed into a weak dynastic umbrella: Reichsnation restricted to nobility electing the Kaiser

Why did state-formation fail?

• Reich too vast, terrain

too rugged, cultures too diverse

• Princes defended their

sovereignty

• Confessional split:

Luther rallies against Rome, but no religious unity: Peace of Westphalia in 1648 cements religious patchwork: “cuius regio, eius religio”

Cultural convergence

Cities blossomed, intellectual and commercial communications across regional boundaries:

• Gutenberg invents the printing press (Leipzig 1450)
• Bible translated
• Commercial contracts require standardization

⇒linguistic community beyond political orders; Bildungsbürgertum and Aufklärung Johann Gottfried Herder (1744-1803) precursor

Reaction to French Revolution

• Conservative and anti-nationalist (Austria)
• Liberal and nationalist (Germany):

– Johann Gottlieb Fichte: “Address to the German nation” in 1807

• Nation-building through politicized
• rganizations
• Democratization against neo-absolutism of

Princes

• State-formation in opposition to Kleinstaaterei
• Conservatives prevail at Congress of Vienna (1814-

15): German Confederation, but considerable geopolitical consolidation

Springtime of the nations!

Nationalist revolutions reverberate throughout Europe

– July 1830: revolution in Paris triggers nationalist unrest in Germany and Italy – Vormärz: gradual nationalist mobilization drawing on anti-French and anti-Danish feelings – Revolution of 1848: unrest in France diffuses, shaking the Habsburgs

1848: agitation at the Michaelsplatz in Vienna

The Frankfurt Parliament

After revolutionary turmoil tears apart German Confederation, the Frankfurt Parliament convenes in

• 1848. All parties

agree that nation-state should be built, but: – boundaries controversial (“klein-”

• r “grossdeutsch”?)

– popular sovereignty fails because Princes resist – Prussia fills vacuum

1848 convention of the Frankfurt Parliament

=> Failure: no unified state, no secure democracy, no cohesive nation

Late state-building

• After Italian unification

in 1860 liberal momentum builds up, but Bismarck, the Prussian Kanzler, “hijacks” the nationalist issue: successful wars against Denmark (1864), Austria (1866), France (1870-71) => German Empire 1871

• Instead of liberal nation-

state, centralized, semi- democratic monarchy led by the Kanzler

Toward integral nationalism...

• The German nation-state was born in war

and Prussian militarism became dominant

• While liberal mainstream was bought off, the

masses remained excluded

• Diversionary tactics: rallying against France,

Britain, and “internal enemies” (socialists and Jews)

• Uncertain Eastern boundary with Slavs

The Italian case

Parallels with the German case:

– geopolitical fragmentation and foreign domination – large, pre-modern entities (Catholic Church) – effect of French Revolution – unification by leading state (Piedmont) >>>integral nationalism results

Failed state-building

• Renaissance system of city-states

locked into balance of power

• Difficult terrain and parochialism
• French and Spanish domination
• Napoleon’s conquest triggers

geopolitical reorganization but restoration of Papal and Austrian power after 1815

Growing nationalism

• In 1831, Giuseppe Mazzini founds

Giovane Italia in Marseilles

• In 1847, the newspaper Il

Risorgimento appears with Cavour as supporter

• In 1848, riots against Austrian rule

in Lombardy but Austrians resist

• In 1852, Cavour becomes Prime

Minister of Piedmont-Sardinia; Garibaldi forms the Association for the Unification of Italy

Mazzini & Garibaldi Cavour

State-building

• In 1860, the first “Italian Parliament”

meets in Turin, and the One Thousand Red Shirts leave for Sicily

• In 1861, Victor Emmanuel becomes

king of Italy and the Kingdom gets a liberal constitution

• Integral nationalism leads to fascism in

the 1920s

Separatist Nationalism Europe in 1885: The breakup

• f the empires

begins

Europe on the eve of WWI: Before the collapse of the great empires

Collapse of Czarist Empire Collapse of Habsburg Empire Collapse of Ottoman Empire

Colonialism

Europe in 1925 after the collapse

• f the empires

What came first? Nation or State?

Common state? Common nation? No Yes No Yes Phase I: State- formation Phase II: Secession & collapse

Eastern Europe: Ottoman, Habsburg, Russian Empires

Nation- building blocked

Separatist nationalism

• State-formation creates a multi-ethnic empire

as in state-framed nationalism

• But nation-building is blocked
• Nationalities secede from the empire

– Internal causes: sub-state revolts against “foreign” rule (mobilization & coordination) – External causes: weak military performance compared with more cohesive nation-states

Hroch’s main argument

• When nationalism hits an area, nationalist

mobilization corresponds to the level of modernization.

• The later modernization happens, the less

liberal and more violent the movement.

• See also Breuilly: imperial policies important

for timing and character of nationalism

Hroch’s phase model

• Phase A. Scholarly inquiry
• Phase B. Politicization
• Phase C. Mass movement

More complex explanation than Gellner’s: Social preconditions depend on more than industrialization (e.g. social mobility, communications, ideological “imports”, imperial policies)

Hroch’s typology

Depending on the timing of modernization || we get:

• Type 1. Integrated nationalism:

|B|--C--> – Czechs, Hungarians, Norwegians

• Type 2. Delayed nationalism: B--||--C-->

– Croats, Slovenians, Lithuanians, Latvians

• Type 3. Insurrectional nationalism:

B-C--||--> – Serbs, Greeks, Bulgarians

• Type 4. Disintegrated nationalism:
• -||--BC-->

– Basque, Catalonians, Flemish, Welch

The Habsburgs

• Multi-ethnic empire

headed by Vienna that dominated fragmentary but partly autonomous ethnic groups and territories through conquest and dynastic politics

• Led by Germans, but

Hungarians enjoyed special status (especially toward the end)

• Feudal + absolutist

tendencies

• Attempted but failed

modernization

The Ottomans

• Sprawling Turkish

dynasty that never tried to build national-state (“Sick Man of Europe”)

• Large degree of cultural

autonomy and self-rule; masses un-mobilized (cf. Gellner’s agrarian phase)

• Millet system: tolerant

religious system for Muslims, Orthodox Christians, Armenians

A chain reaction of nationalism

French Revolution, Napoleon Vienna Hungary Croats Rumanians Czechs Slovaks Imperial policies Serbs Greeks Constantinople

The Magyar case

• Pragmatic Sanction of 1723
• A => B. Diffusion of ideas esp. from French

Revolution + German nationalism (Herder): Szechenyi and Kossuth. April laws.

• B => C. Vienna’s oppression. Revolt crushed

by Vienna & Russia in 1849; War with Prussia creates Ausgleich (compromise) of 1867 which initiates the Dual Monarchy

The Croat case

• Croatia part of “military frontier” defending

against Ottoman Empire (boundary effect!)

• A => B. The Sabor resists Magyar demands.

Illyrian linguistic consolidation attempted (Gaj and Strossmayer).

• B => C. Magyar repression esp. after

Compromise of 1867. Yugoslavism on the rise.

The Serb case

• Serbia conquered by Ottomans in 1459.

Early insurrections in 1812 not

• nationalist. Serbia independent in 1878.
• Economically backward and tolerant

Ottoman rule

• Nationalist mobilization “imported” from

Habsburgs via Voivodina overtakes modernization