Mak aking g Next xt Gen ener eration tion Biofuel fuel Sy - - PowerPoint PPT Presentation

Richar ard d Sayr yre

• Scient

ntif ific ic Directo ctor, , Center er for Advanced nced Biofue uel l Systems stems (DOE-EF EFRC)

• Scient

ntif ific ic Directo ctor, , National ional Alliance ance for Advan anced ced Biofue uels ls and Bioprodu ducts cts (DOE Algal al Biomass mass Program) am)

• Co

Co-Invest estigato tor r Photo tosyn synth theti etic c Antennae ennae Resear earch h Center r (DOE-EFR EFRC)

Mak aking g Next xt Gen ener eration tion Biofuel fuel Sy Syst stem ems W s Work

Wh What t en ener ergy gy sou

• urces

ces ar are e th the e mo most t ef efficient icient an and mo most t sus ustaina tainable? le?

Fuel Energy gy Return urn

• n Investment

estment (best st to worst) st) Carbon bon Effici icienc ency y Index (g CO2/megaJoule) Hydr droele

• electri

ctric 30 30-100 100

• Shale

le Gas 68 68 53 53 Coal 60 60 105 105 Cell llulosic ulosic Ethanol nol 6-36 36 20 20 Petroleum

• leum

30 30-40 40 96 96 Wind nd 20 20-40 40

• So

Solar ar PV PV 10 10-35 35

• Algal

al biocr crude ude 10 10

• Sugar

arcane cane Ethan anol

• l

6-10 10 20 20 Food 2.7 2.7-5

• Biodi

dies esel el 2.5 2.5 17 17-40 40 Corn Ethanol anol 0.8 0.8-1.7 1.7 34 34-80 80

Energy 52 (2013): 210–221

Bio iofue uels; ls; an n alt lterna ernativ tive e to

• li

liqui uid d foss

• ssil

il fuels ls

Advanta antages es

• Sustaina

tainable le, , not extractiv ctive

• Reduce

duced d CO2 and S emissions sions

• Ener

ergy gy independence pendence

• Decen

centr traliz alized ed ener ergy gy econo

• nomy

my

• Oi

Oil-based based feedstoc dstocks availa ilable le

Co Const straints: aints:

• Low

w solar ar ener ergy gy density sity

• Potent

ential ial compe petition tition with th food d

• Techno

hnological logical hurdles dles

• Producti

duction

• n systems

ems must t be

• ptimiz

imized ed for each h site; e; high h capex

• Harvests

ests often ten seas asonal,

• nal, not

t contin ntinuou uous

About half of the products produced from oil have no alternative replacements other than oil-based feedstocks

Advanta antages es of biocr crude ude based sed fuels els

• Oil has 2X the energy density of

alcohol.

• Oil has 50X the energy density of the

best batteries

• Oil-based feedstocks are compatible

with existing refinery, fuel distribution, and engine infrastructure

• Reduced sulfur and particulate

emissions

Bio iocr crude ude, , a su sust staina inable le replac placement ement for

• r pe

petroleum

• leum

Bio iofuels uels are e contrib tributi uting ng (~25%) ~25%) to

• reducti

ductions

• ns in

in US US greenhous eenhouse e gas s emis issi sions

• ns

Tota tal l US S gree eenhous nhouse e gas as em emissions

• ns dropp

pped ed 16 16% bet etween een 20 2000 00 an and 20 2009 09

Next-Gen Bioenergy Systems

• Greater energy-return-on-investment
• Reduced greenhouse gas emissions per unit

energy generated (gCO2/mJ)

• Reduced resource (land, water, and nutrient)

requirements

• Reduced competition for food
• Compatible with existing liquid fuel refining,

distribution, and combustion infra-structure

• Scalable production systems
• Achieve economic parity with petroleum-based

fuels

Imp mprovin roving g sus ustainable tainable bio iocru crude de pro roduction duction

Eldorado ado Biofuel uels s algal facility in Jal, NM. Utilizes “produced” water from oil wells.

Next xt-gen en bio iofuels uels: : Oi Oils ls from

• m mi

microalg

• algae

ae

50 50-90%

Oth ther bio iomass

4-50% Oil ils

Rapi pid d growth

• wth rate

e (2 (2-10 10 X fast aster er than terrestrial estrial plants) nts) Unlik ike e plants nts, all cells ls are photosyn tosyntheti thetic High h photosy tosynthetic nthetic effici icienc ency (CCM) M) Double le biomass mass in 6-12 12 hours s High gh oil l conte tent nt 4-50% 50% non-pola polar r lipid ids All l biomass mass harvested ested 100% 100% Harvest est inter erval al 24/7; 7; not season asonall ally, , so reduce duces s risk sk Su Susta taina inable le Captur ture e CO2 in ponds ds as bicar arbona

• nate

te Use waste ste water ter and nutrie rients nts No direct ect competi etition tion with th food

• d

Rela lativ tive e land d area ea for biof

• fuel

uel feedstoc dstocks requir quired d to displace place US gasoli

• line

ne demand and (2006 006)

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 14 (2010) 217-232

Nati tional

• nal Alliance

ance for Advanc anced ed Biofuel fuels s an and Biopr

• products
• ducts (2010

(2010-2013) 2013)



Develo lop p cost-ef effecti tive e produc

• ductio

tion n of algal l biomass

• mass

and lipi pids ds

 Algal

al Biol

• logy

gy - Increase overall productivity of algal biomass accumulation and lipid/hydrocarbon content

 Culti

tivati tion

• n - Increase overall productivity by
• ptimizing sustainable cultivation and production

systems

 Harvestin

sting/ g/Extr Extrac action tion - Develop cost-effective and energy efficient harvesting and lipid extraction technologies



Develo lop p econo nomical ically ly viable le fuels ls and co-pr produ ducts cts

 Fuel

el Conver ersio sion n – Develop technologies to convert lipids/hydrocarbons and biomass residues into useful fuels

 Valu

luable le Co-pr prod

• ducts

ts - Develop a set of valuable coproducts to add profitability and provide flexibility to allow responsiveness to changing demands/opportunities in the market

 Provi

vide de a frame mework for r a sustain tainable algal l biof

• fuel

uels s industr dustry

 Sustain

tainabi bility ity Analy lysis sis – Quantitatively assess the energy, environment, economic viability (LCA) and sustainability of the NAABB approaches to guide our strategy

Mo Mode deli ling ng Alg lgal l Farm rm Ec Econ

• nomics
• mics

Source: Extrapolated from NREL harmonization report 2012 James Richardson, TAMU Myriah Johnson , TAMU Meghan Downes, NMSU (12,125 acres; 10 inches deep)

NAABB sustainability analysis scenarios: roadmap for the future

WT vs GMO Open Pond ARID raceway Centrifuge Electroflocculation Hydrothermal liquefaction/ Catalytic hydrogen gasification Wet solvent extraction

Two stage hydrothermal liquefaction (HTL) and catalytic hydrogen gasification (CHG) of algal biomass; 85% recovery of total carbon as fuel. Biocrude is compatible with existing refinery and combustion processes

160-300 oC 300 bars

CHG

CH4 H2O and nutrients Pond Biocrude +

Algae: protein (9-60%), carbohydrate (5-60%), lipid (2-60%) Biocr crude ude compos positi ition

• n: alkanes, fatty acids, cyclic aromaticss, ketones

HTL L ene nergy gy con

• nver

ersion sion efficienc iciency; y; En Energy gy reco covery ery from

• m dif

iffer eren ent t feed eed stoc

• cks

Material terial Oi Oil % Protein tein % Carb rboh

• hydr

drate te % Ener ergy gy Reco covery ery in Biocr

• crude

ude % Plant nt Oi Oil 100 100

• 87

87 Protein tein

• 100

100

• 30

30 Star arch

• 100

100 14 14 Nanoc nochlor hloropsis

• psis

32 32 (6.4X)

X)

57 57 8 66 66 (1.30)

0)

Chlor

• rella

ella 25 25 (5X) 55 55 9 54 54 (1.06)

6)

Porphyrid phyridium ium 8 8 (1.6X)

6X)

43 43 40 40 52 52 (1.02)

2)

Spirulina ulina 5 5 (1X) 65 65 20 20 51 51 (1)

(1)

Bioresource Technol. (2011) 102: 215

Scenario nario Base se Best st Case Biology

• logy

Generic GMO (3x) Cultiv tivation tion Open Pond Arid Raceway Harvesting esting Centrifuge Electrocoagulation Ex Extrac action tion Wet Solvent HTL-CHG Nutrie rient nt Recycli ling ng No Yes Bioma mass ss Product duction ion (Tons ns/yr yr) 120,000 380,000 Crude de Oil Product duction ion (gall llons/

• ns/yr

yr) 4,700,000 52,000,000 Product ducts Oil and delipidated algae Oil and methane Location tion Pecos, TX Tucson, AZ Total al cost/g t/gall allon

• n

$230 - 16 $ 4.90 – 3.60

Modeling eling al algal al biofue fuels ls sy syst stem ems; s; bas ase e (c (current) ent) an and bes est-cas case e sce cenar ario io

4,000 ha farm

NAABB life cycle analyses indicate that enhancing biomass productivity is required for profitable biofuel production from algae

15

What aspec pects ts of biomass ass produc uctivity tivity shou

• uld

d we focus us our efforts ts on to achie hieve e the greate test t yields? lds?

Improving ing biomas mass productio duction ef efficie icienc ncy What t sh should uld be e th the e ta targets? ets?

Light ght captur ture 55% losses Energy gy conver ersi sion

• n

30-40% losses Energy gy accum umulati tion

• n

(sink) nk) 4-6% gain

Zhu et al., (2010) Annual Review of Plant Biology, 61: 235-261; Subramanian et al., (2013) Biotechnol. Biofuels 6:150-162

Maximum theoretical efficiency for photosynthesis (red photons to glucose) is ~30% EROI for carbohydrate production is 10% -20% greater than for oil synthesis

Ph Photosy tosynthesis nthesis wast stes es 75% of the e captu tured ed light ht ener ergy gy becau cause se anten tenna na are e too

• big

Energy gy captur ture e is 10 fold ld faster ster than ph photosynthetic tosynthetic electr ctron

• n trans

nsfer er at noon. n. Photos

• synt

nthes hesis is can be light ht satur urated ed du duri ring g 75% of the day. Up p to 60% of abs bsorb

• rbed

ed ligh ght t at full ll sunli light ght is diss ssip ipated ted as heat t or fluor

• rescence

escence High gh ligh ght t intens ensiti ities es also so lead ad to photoinhi

• inhibi

bition ion or damage e to photosy

• system

em II

Ki Kinet etic ic bottlene ttlenecks s in el elec ectr tron

• n tr

tran ansf sfer er rate tes s red educe uce th the e ef efficienc ciency y of light t co conver ersion ion into to chem emical cal en ener ergy gy

3-5 fs 1 1 μs 1 ms 1 ns

Rate limitations

Photon ton captur ture is 10 times es faster ter than an elect ectron

• n transf

ansfer er at noon

• n

Reducing ducing Chl b level els s reduces duces LHC-ant antenna nna size and incr creases eases ener ergy gy conver ersion sion efficienc iciency; y; but does s this s transla anslate te to bette tter photosynthesis tosynthesis and grow

• wth?

th?

• The peripher

ripheral al antennae ennae (LHC) C) accounts

• unts for

r 75% of the total l Chl (500) ) with th PSII and PSI PSI

• Chl

l b is present sent only ly in the pe perip ipher heral al antennae nnae (LHC). ).

Proceedings of the 1999 US DOE Hydrogen Program Review

Eliminating Chl b eliminates LHC and increases photosynthetic efficiency at high light intensities but only tested under photoheterotrophic conditions

M L

Tokutsu et al. J. Biol. Chem. (2012) Kouril et al. BBA (2012) CP24 CP26 CP29

• A. thaliana
• C. reinhardtii

M S CP26 Chl a/b =3 CP29 Chl a/b = 2 LHC trimer Chl a/b = 1 C2 C2

Alg lgae ae ha have e addit ditional ional dema mands nds for

• r ATP

P to

• fix

ix CO2. . Unl nlik ike e pla lant nts, , alg lgae ae activ ctivel ely y (ATP) TP) pum ump bic icarbo arbona nate te in into

• chl

hlor

• roplasts
• plasts
• M. Spalding

Cyclic ic ATP P sy synthesis thesis suppor ports ts the additional itional ener ergy gy demand and for the e bicarbona arbonate e pump p (HLA3) A3)

ATP

Light ht harvesting esting compl mplexes es dyn ynamicall amically y regula gulate te light ht dist stribution ution betw twee een n photo

• tosystems

tems and d dissipa ipate te exces cess s ener ergy gy to reduce duce light ht stress ess

LHCI CII associa

• ciati

tion

• n with PSI

supp pports ts an increase ase in cyclic ATP P synth thesis esis

Chlamy mydo domon monas as mutan ants ts unable e to do state te transit sitions s have impair ired ed growth th due to a reduced ced ability ty to carry y out cyclic ic ATP synth thesis esis. . PNAS AS 106:1 :15979 5979

State e II

Modulating Light Harvesting antennae Complexes (LHCII) size

Hypoth

• thesis

esis: : Reducing ducing (but t not t elimina inating ting )chlor lorophy phyll ll b will l alter ter anten tenna na dyn ynamics amics by reduc ducing ing self-shadi shading ng, , allow

• wing

ing for st state te transi ansitions tions and d reducing ducing photo

• todama

damage improving ing photo

• tosynthetic

synthetic efficien iciency

Modula ulating ting light ht har arves esti ting ng an ante tenna nna to to optimiz timize e growth

• wth

CHO

Chl a oxygenase (CAO)

Chl a Chl b Chlo lorop

• phyll

yll a oxygenas enase RNAi

Alt lterna ernativ tive e ant ntenna enna designs signs for

• r li

light ht captur pture e in in canopies nopies and nd pon

• nds

ds

10X 5X 1X 1X 1X 1X 1X Excess energy harvested Optimal for light competition Optimal efficiency in canopies and monocultures

Gen ener erating ting tr tran ansg sgenic enic mi micr croal

• algae

ae wi with th inte termed rmedia iate te chlorophyl

• phyll

l a/ a/b rati tios

• s

Strain Total Chl per Cell (µg/ml) Chl a/b ratio Fold Increase in Chl a/b ratio compared with WT WT CC-424 11.3 2.2

• CAO-RNAi

(Chl-b deficient) CR-15 10.8 3.1 1.4 CR-28 10.3 3.4 1.5 CR-46 10.5 4.7 2.1 CR-56 11.5 3.7 1.7 CR-68 10.9 4.5 2.0 CR-118 10.9 4.0 1.8 CR-125 8.8 4.9 2.2 CR-133 10.7 4.9 2.2 CAO-Knockout (Chl-b less) cbs-3 10.4 

• Adj. R-Square = 0.96

An inver erse e rel elation tionshi ship p exi xists ts bet etween een chlor

• roph
• phyll

ll fluor

• res

esce cenc nce e rai aise e kinet etics ics an and Ch Chl a/ a/b rati tios or an ante tenna nna size

photochemistry heat

3O2 → 1O2

When photochemistry is saturated fluorescence increases

Small Interm rmedi diate Large (WT)

Transgenic ansgenic algal al stra rains ins with th higher her chloroph

• rophyll

yll a/b ratios tios have e smaller ller antennae ennae sizes es

Antenn nnae Size

Chl-pr prote tein n comple mplexes s from

• m algae

with differen ent t anten ennae nae sizes Raw w Chl fluor uoresc scenc nce is greater r in strains ns conta ntaining ning mor

• re

e Chl b

LOW HIGH

Chl a/b b = 4.9 2.2 4.0 4.9

∞

Chl a/b Chl a/b b = 2.2 No Chl b

Algae ae with h intermedia termediate e antennae tennae si sizes es have e the e highest hest (2.5 .5 X) photosynthetic tosynthetic rates tes at satur urating ting light ht

• 50

50 100 150 200 250 50 150 300 450 600 750 850 (µmol O2/ mg Chl/ hr) Light Intensity (µmol photons m-2 s-1) CC-424 CR-118 CR-133 cbs-3 LL

CR-133; Chl a/b = 4.9 CR-118; Chl a/b = 4.0 cbs3; No chl b No Chl b Wild type; Chl a/b = 2.2 Complete antennae

Inte terme rmedia diate te Chl a/b

Simi milar r results ts were obtained tained when n photosyn hotosynthe thesis sis is expresse ssed d on a cell num umber ber rather r than an chlor

• rop
• phyl

hyll basis

Perrine et al., (2012) Algal Research 1: 134-142

CR lines also have robust xanthophyll cycle and operational state transitions

Growth under 50 µmol photons m-2s-1 (LOW LIGHT) Growth under 500 µmol photons m-2s-1 (SATURATING LIGHT)

0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

CC-424 CR-118 CR-133 cbs3

0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Cultur lture Density nsity (OD 750)

Growth (days)

CC-424 CR-118 CR-133 cbs3

Algae ae with h inter termedia mediate e Chl a/b ratios tios have e 30% % grea eater ter biomass mass product ductivi ivities ties at high h light ht inten tensitie ities (in flask sks) s)

Intermedi ermediates tes

WT No Chl b

Light ht inte tens nsiti ties es an and day y len ength th chan ange e th throughout

• ughout

th the e yea ear; how w do we co e contin tinuous

• usly

ly ad adjus ust t an antenna tenna?

30

Engine ineeri ering ng self-adjusting djusting anten tenna na sizes s optim imiz ized ed for r energy y captu ture e and conversio sion n throughout

• ughout the year.

Wint nter er Summe mer Spr prin ing Fall

Engineering ineering anten tenna na that t self-adjus djust t Chl l a/b ratios ios to changing anging light ht inten tensities ities Light ht-de depende pendent nt modula ulation tion of chlor lorophyll

• phyll b accum

umula ulation tion

Light Response Element fused to Cao gene

LRE

Chl a oxygenase mRNA High Light

 Chl l b synt nthes hesis is

 Chl a/b ratio  Ante tenn nna a Size Cultur ture e prod

• duct

ctivi viti ties es at HL

High NAB1 protein levels Chlamydomonas Chl a oxygenase (no Chl b) mutant background transformed with LRE-Cao construct

NAB1 protein binds to LRE inhibiting Cao mRNA translation

NAB1 protein characterized by Olaf Kruse lab

Incr creasi easing ng Chl

l a oxygena enase se activ ivity ity and d elevating ting Chl b level els s at low light ht to incr creas ease e antenna enna size

Chl a oxygenase mRNA

HL

Low NAB1 RNA binding protein levels

Low Light  Chl l b b synt nthes hesis is

 Chl a/b ratio  Ante tenn nna a Size Cultur ture e prod

• duct

ctivi viti ties es at LL

LRE

Cao mRNA translation proceeds

Doe

• es

s ant nten enna nae e siz ize e self lf-adjust? adjust? Ant nten enna na get t la larger er as cul ultu ture e (self elf-shading) shading) grows

• ws

WT NAB Phenometrics PBR

2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 2 4 6 8

Chlorophyll a/b ratio (Antenna size) Days

Complemented WT NABCAO 7 NABCAO 29 NABCAO 77

9 11 13 7 6 8 10 12

Small Large

Photosynth tosynthesi esis s in in alg lgae ae wit ith self lf-adjusting adjusting antenn enna a li light ht satu turate tes s (3X) ) at highe her inten ensities sities than n wild type e

20 40 60 80 100 120 200 400 600 800

Rate of Oxygen evolution (µMol/ mg chl/hr Light intensity (µMol m-2 s-1)

2677 cbs 3 NAB 7 NAB 29 NAB 77 WON 4 MUN 32

* * *

• Comp. WT

WT NAB 77 NAB 29 NAB 7 Cbs3 Mutant comp. WT

Trans ansgenics enics wi with th se self-adjus adjusti ting ng Ch Chl a/ a/b rati tios s produc

• duce

e > 2 2-fold

• ld more

e biomas mass th than an wi wild ty type in e in PB PBRs

0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 CC2677 Comp WT cbs3 NABCAO 7 NABCAO 29 NABCAO 77 Biomass (g/L/)

* * *

Next xt-gener eneration tion bio io-hybri hybrid d produc

• duction

tion systems stems

• More efficient utilization of solar

spectrum

• Enhanced environmental control of

nutrient loading

• Facilitated gas exchange supported

by SANS analyses of hydrogel porosity and selectivity

• Reduced harvesting expenses
• Reduced water requirements

LANL patent pending

37

Rec ecyclable e hydrog

• gel

el bea eads ds (2 (2 mm mm) ) su suppor port t su subst stant antially ally en enhan hance ced d al algal al grow

• wth

th an and fac acilita tate te har arves esting ting

We have e achie hieved ed three ee fold ld incr creases eases in biomass mass density sity relativ tive e to stationary tionary-phase phase, , liqu quid id algal al cultu ltures es using ing wild ld-type type Chlamy amydo domonas monas grown

• wn in hydr

drog

• gel

el be beads ds. Greater ter yield elds s are expe pecte cted d using ng algae ae enginee ineered ed to having ing self lf-ad adjusting justing, , light ht-har harvesting esting anten enna na

1X 3X

38

38 38 38

Fluorescence images of encapsulated algae and g-QDs at different stages of algal growth. Algae quench fluorescence emission from g-QDs

Gian ant t quantum antum dots ts imbed edded ded in hydrog

• gel

el bea eads freq eque uenc ncy shift t non

• n-

PAR to to red ed light ht incr creas easing ing photo ton n flux x den ensity ity

Day 1

g-QD fluorescence

Day 8

algal fluorescence only

Day 4

g-QD and algal fluorescence

Can we engineer more optimal antenna sizes in plants as well?

Transgenic Camelina 40% seed oil by content

Reducing Chl b levels in Camelina using Cao long and short RNAi constructs driven by the Cab1 promoter

TP A B C 0 100 500 600 1600 53-326 1-718 Short Long bp

Optimizing antenna sizes in plants

Comparison of CAOi transgenics and WT

• CAOi on the left, WT on the right
• Chl a/b ratios in transgenics range from 3.3 to 12

(compared to 3 for WT)

Trans ansgen enic ic Camelina elina expressing ssing a chlor lorophyl

• phyll

l a oxygena enase se RNAi i constr struct ct have e smaller ller anten tenna na sizes s as indic icated ted by reduced duced chlor

• rophy

phyll ll fluor

• rescenc

escence

1 sec light 10 sec light 1 min light 5 min light

Caoi-A→ WT→

Ca Camel elina na plan ants ts wi with th inte termedia mediate te sized ed an antenna tenna have e a 2 a 25% 5% incr creas ease e in ae aerial al photos

• tosyntheti

ynthetic c rate te at t high h light t inte tens nsities ties

5 10 15 20 25 500 1000 1500 2000

Photosy tosynthesis nthesis rate μmol l CO CO2/m /m2/sec /sec

Ligh ght t intensity tensity μmol

• l photo
• tons/m

ns/m2/sec sec

WT (chla/b=3) CAO RNAi (chla/b=5.4) CAOi RNAi (chla/b=7.0) CAO RNAi (chla/b=12.2)

WT vs Caoi Long

WT Caoi

Chl a/b = 3 Chl a/b = 5-7

Growth analysis of wild-type and intermediate antenna Camelina planted at field densities in greenhouse

Caoi

• i 8-1

Chl a/b = 6 WT WT Chl a/b = 3

Summary

• Increasing biomass yield and reducing harvesting

costs remain the greatest challenges for profitable algal biofuels

• Algae with self-adjusting antenna have a 2X increase in

productivity, the largest increase engineered to date.

• Algae with large antenna are more evolutionary fit than

algae with small antennae since they shade competitors

• Antenna size optimization in algae and plants is similar
• Reusable bio-hybrid devices are being developed to

increase solar energy conversion efficiency and reduce harvesting costs

The Team at LANL/NMC

The Biofuel Team

John Gordon, LANL Zoee Perrine, Danforth Center Jennifer Hollingsworth, LANL Anil Kumar, Danforth Center Volker Urban, ORNL Jeri Timlin, Sandia Nat. Lab. Hugh O’Neill, ORNL Aaron Collins, Sandia Nat. Lab Brad O’Dell, ORNL Howard Berg, Danforth Center

Tawanda Zidenga Sangeeta Negi Natalia Friedland Amanda Barry Sathish Rajamani Sowmya Subramanian Angela Tonon

Entrada Facility; July 2013

Support from DOE and NSF

HTL conversion of biomass generates a diversity of products

Pr Prote teins ins → oxidized cyclics and heterocyclics Ca Carbohy

• hydr

drate tes → cyclics and ketones Oil → alkanes and fatty acids Algae ae → Contain all the products from oil, protein and carbohydrate fractions but lack the ketone fraction produced from carbohydrates

Bioresource Technol. (2011) 102: 215

Best locations to grow algal biofuels based on climate, water, barren land (< 2% slope), and CO2 availability

Quinn et al., (2013) Bioenergy Research 6:591 New Mexico Production 2,100-2,300 gallons/acre/yr Annual fuel/acre sufficient for ~4 cars @ 20 miles/gallon and 12,000 miles/yr