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3 ~ Wu, Yongan. "Integrating Mixed-Sensory Mode Presentation and Practice Testing at the Beginning Level Chinese Vocabulary Instruction." Proceedings of the 11th International Conference on Chinese Language Pedagogy.

Eds. S. Cao and Z. Yu. Chengdu, China: Bashu Publishing

House, 2013. 826-37.

SLIDE 2

Integrating mixed-sensory mode presentation and practice testing at the beginning level Chinese vocabulary instruction

Yongan Wu (University of North Florida, U. S. A.)

Abstract: This study examines the effect of practice testing on short- term and long-term memorization of phonetic and semantic values of Chi-

nese words with beginning level Chinese language learners who received

new vocabulary through both aural and visual signals. Practice testing was proved to have a small to moderate effect on participants' short-term memory and a considerably large effect for long-term memorization, compared to traditional methods which provided no test until the end of the learning

process. These findings should serve to encourage teachers to incorporate

practice tests containing innovative questions into their classes.

Key word: practice testing; mixed-sensory mode; vocabulary; CFL

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Integrating mixed-sensory mode presentation and practice testing at the beginning level Chinese vocabulary instruction

Yongan Wu (University of North Florida, U. S. A.)

Abstract: This study examines the effect of practice testing on short- term and long-term memorization of phonetic and semantic values of Chi-

nese words with beginning level Chinese language learners who received

new vocabulary through both aural and visual signals. Practice testing was proved to have a small to moderate effect on participants' short-term memory and a considerably large effect for long-term memorization, compared to traditional methods which provided no test until the end of the learning

process. These findings should serve to encourage teachers to incorporate

practice tests containing innovative questions into their classes.

Key word: practice testing; mixed-sensory mode; vocabulary; CFL

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SLIDE 3

I 828

tal schemas and codes. Review of Literature For beginning CFL (Chinese as a Foreign Language) learners, a character appears to be either an amalgam of different, distinct graphic u- nits or a visualization of a single, solitary graphic concept (Li &. Lee 2006) . It then becomes a particularly challenging task for CFL learners to create, maintain and integrate such an extensive schema into their working memory, especially one that arbitrarily links the graphic features and semantic values of numerous characters (Zhang 2009) . In order to lower the load on learners' working memory, scholars are actively searching for effective instructional methods so that novel, complex information can be re- tained longer. One noticeable branch of research stems from the theory that the human mind processes and stores information above two independent slave cognitive systems, namely, the verbal system for words and the visual system for images and analog representations (Baddeley & Hitch 1974; Bjorn et al. 2012; Paivio 1986) . The feasibility of dividing the verbal form into two modes, i. e., written words (text) and auditory signals (vocalization of text), provides the principal rationale to employ more than one presentation mode as an instructional means to enhance the rate and relia- bility of the entire encoding process in case a singular mode causes a detrimental overflow in the cognitive system (Andres & Petersen 2002; Tab- bers et al. 2004) . During the last decade, a few studies have been conducted for the pur- pose of adapting such a modality effect into the domain of CFL. By presen- ting characters visually on screen and their pronunciation and meaning au- rally through headphones, researchers can effectively isolate, compare and confirm the superiority of the modality effect on character learning. Among many well known experiments, three studies are particularly relevant. The first one was conducted by Jin (2006) to measure and compare the reten- tion of characters among learners of different linguistic backgrounds by highlighting the various parts or values of characters in textual, ·aural and animated forms. The results suggest that an aural mode is better than tradi-

I 828

tal schemas and codes. Review of Literature For beginning CFL (Chinese as a Foreign Language) learners, a character appears to be either an amalgam of different, distinct graphic u- nits or a visualization of a single, solitary graphic concept (Li &. Lee 2006) . It then becomes a particularly challenging task for CFL learners to create, maintain and integrate such an extensive schema into their working memory, especially one that arbitrarily links the graphic features and semantic values of numerous characters (Zhang 2009) . In order to lower the load on learners' working memory, scholars are actively searching for effective instructional methods so that novel, complex information can be re- tained longer. One noticeable branch of research stems from the theory that the human mind processes and stores information above two independent slave cognitive systems, namely, the verbal system for words and the visual system for images and analog representations (Baddeley & Hitch 1974; Bjorn et al. 2012; Paivio 1986) . The feasibility of dividing the verbal form into two modes, i. e., written words (text) and auditory signals (vocalization of text), provides the principal rationale to employ more than one presentation mode as an instructional means to enhance the rate and relia- bility of the entire encoding process in case a singular mode causes a detrimental overflow in the cognitive system (Andres & Petersen 2002; Tab- bers et al. 2004) . During the last decade, a few studies have been conducted for the pur- pose of adapting such a modality effect into the domain of CFL. By presen- ting characters visually on screen and their pronunciation and meaning au- rally through headphones, researchers can effectively isolate, compare and confirm the superiority of the modality effect on character learning. Among many well known experiments, three studies are particularly relevant. The first one was conducted by Jin (2006) to measure and compare the reten- tion of characters among learners of different linguistic backgrounds by highlighting the various parts or values of characters in textual, ·aural and animated forms. The results suggest that an aural mode is better than tradi-

SLIDE 4

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d

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n

d s t u d y c

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d u c t e d b y Chung ( 2 8 ) c

m

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in character instruction as he presented 20 characters in random order and

their prompts ( p r

n

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s a n d m e a n i n g s i n E n g l i s h ) t

a

g r

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p

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n c e t h e s e c h a r a c t e r s a n d translate them i n t

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n g l i s h at t h e e n d

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i n n i n g l e v e l CFL l e a r n e r s ' a b i l i t y t

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u c

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y i n p u t . An i m m e d i a t e a n d a d e l a y e d post-test were given and there was not a significant difference between the text and narration group, but all participants tested higher in the immedi- a t e post

test rather than in the

d e l a y e d t e s t . l n short. t h e f i r s t t w

s

t u d i e s v a l i d a t e t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s

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u s i n g M S M presentation in CFL vocabulary instruction and the third illustrates an im- portant p r

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t h e m e t h

d

t h a t t

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c h e s

n an

i n t r i n s i c d e f i c i e n c y a g

gravated by the lapse of time, i. e., the inconvenience, and oftentimes

impossibility, in reviewing material delivered inMSM because of technical d i f f i c u l t i e s i n p r

m

p t l y l

c

a t i n g t h e target i n f

r

m a t i

n

i n a u d i

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n d v i d e

S

O u r c e s . Repetition is a natural choice, yet its effect is limited and superfi- c i a l , n

t

t

m

e n t i

n

t h e f a c t t h a t i t c a n e a s i l y n e g a t i v e l y e f f e c t students'

learning interests. O n e p

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e r e d that t e s t s c a n l e a d

t

s

i g n i f i c a n t l e a r n i n g a c t i v i t y ( A b

b
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r

y a n d d e e p e n c

m

p r e h e n s i

n

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c

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r

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t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s ' l i n g u i s t i c b a c k g r

u

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n

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n

d u c t e d b y Chung ( 2 8 ) c

m

p a r e d t h e e f f e c t

f

t h e MSM p r e s e n t a t i

n

in character instruction as he presented 20 characters in random order and

their prompts ( p r

n

u n c i a t i

n

s a n d m e a n i n g s i n E n g l i s h ) t

a

g r

u

p

f

b e

g

i n n i n g CFL learners. w h

w

e r e t h e n a s k e d t

p

r

n
u

n c e t h e s e c h a r a c t e r s a n d translate them i n t

E

n g l i s h at t h e e n d

f

t h e p r e s e n t a t i

n

. T w

w

e e k s later, in a surprise delayed test, learners were asked to perform the same t a s k . The treatment g r

u

p w h

h

e a r d p r

n

u n c i a t i

n

s a n d t h e a c c

m

p a n y i n g E n g l i s h m e a n i n g s t h r

u

g h h e a d p h

n

e s s c

r

e d higher i n m e a n i n g r e c a l l t e s t s

n

b

th rounds

c

m

p a r e d t

t

h e c

n

t r

l

group w h i c h

nly

r e c e i v e d prompts i n t e x t u a l f

r

m . T h e t h i r d s t u d y b y C h u a n g a n d K u ( 2 1 1 ) e x a m i n e d b e

g

i n n i n g l e v e l CFL l e a r n e r s ' a b i l i t y t

r

e t a i n C h i n e s e c h a r a c t e r s ' g r a p h i c f e a

t

u r e s u n d e r t w

c
n

d i t i

n

s ,

1) the text group saw the

c h a r a c t e r a n d r e a d a n i n t r

d

u c t i

n

i n E n g l i s h a b

u

t t h e c h a r a c t e r ' s e t y m

l
g

i c a l f

r

m a t i

n

; a n d 2 ) t h e n a r r a t i

n

g r

u

p s a w t h e c h a r a c t e r a n d h e a r d t h e s a m e i n t r

d

u c

t

i

n

i n E n g l i s h d e l i v e r e d a s an a u d i t

r

y i n p u t . An i m m e d i a t e a n d a d e l a y e d post-test were given and there was not a significant difference between the text and narration group, but all participants tested higher in the immedi- a t e post

test rather than in the

d e l a y e d t e s t . l n short. t h e f i r s t t w

s

t u d i e s v a l i d a t e t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s

f

u s i n g M S M presentation in CFL vocabulary instruction and the third illustrates an im- portant p r

p

e r t y

f

t h e m e t h

d

t h a t t

u

c h e s

n an

i n t r i n s i c d e f i c i e n c y a g

gravated by the lapse of time, i. e., the inconvenience, and oftentimes

impossibility, in reviewing material delivered inMSM because of technical d i f f i c u l t i e s i n p r

m

p t l y l

c

a t i n g t h e target i n f

r

m a t i

n

i n a u d i

a

n d v i d e

S

O u r c e s . Repetition is a natural choice, yet its effect is limited and superfi- c i a l , n

t

t

m

e n t i

n

t h e f a c t t h a t i t c a n e a s i l y n e g a t i v e l y e f f e c t students'

learning interests. O n e p

s

s i b l e t e c h n i q u e i n v

l

v e s m a k i n g u s e

f

p r a c t i c e t e s t s . S c h

l

a r s l

n

g a g

d

i s c

v

e r e d that t e s t s c a n l e a d

t

s

i g n i f i c a n t l e a r n i n g a c t i v i t y ( A b

b
t

t 1 9 9 ) . T h e y r e f r e s h s t u d e n t s ' m e m

r

y a n d d e e p e n c

m

p r e h e n s i

n

~

SLIDE 5

830

since test questions require them to search, reconnect and reconfigure their mental schema for answers (Pyc &. Rawson 2009; Roediger. 1II & Karpicke 2006) . Practice testing provides advantages in a number of cognitive tasks (Cull 2000; Glover 1989; McDaniela et a!. 2007; Wheeler et a!. 2003) . Among the advantages. those affecting beginning level vocabulary learning was investigated by two recent studies. Sean (2010) selected twenty simple Chinese characters (two to four strokes each) paired with English translations and asked participants with no Chinese language expe- rience to learn and practice. They then wrote the characters from memory 10 minutes later and then again 24 hours later. The result demonstrated that those "who had practiced retrieval were more accurate at writing/ drawing the Chinese characters than were those who had studied repeatedly"

(p. 1009). regardless of their learning conditions. In a similar vein. the study conducted by Karpicke and Roediger III (2008) employed a more elaborative research design to observe students' performance in the following four conditions: repeatedly studying and being tested; repeatedly studying without being further tested; repeatedly being tested without further studying; no further studying while still being tested. A list of 40 Swahili-English word pairs was administrated and the results proved that repeated testing lead to a stronger long-term memory in the delayed recall test a week later. Method A total number of 63 beginning level CFL students enrolled at two public universities in the U. S. participated in this study. To minimize differences between instructors and schools. instructors followed the same

textbook. synchronized their teaching schedules and collaborated on home-

work and quiz preparation. Participants were assigned to either a treatment group or a control group. Both groups received a list of 40 unlearned disyl- labic words that were loosely related to their Chinese proficien-

cy. Participants had already learned 30 % of the characters in these
words. Character complexity was also controlled to reflect the learning situ-

ation of beginning level Chinese students. namely. only 20% of the char-

830

since test questions require them to search, reconnect and reconfigure their mental schema for answers (Pyc &. Rawson 2009; Roediger. 1II & Karpicke 2006) . Practice testing provides advantages in a number of cognitive tasks (Cull 2000; Glover 1989; McDaniela et a!. 2007; Wheeler et a!. 2003) . Among the advantages. those affecting beginning level vocabulary learning was investigated by two recent studies. Sean (2010) selected twenty simple Chinese characters (two to four strokes each) paired with English translations and asked participants with no Chinese language expe- rience to learn and practice. They then wrote the characters from memory 10 minutes later and then again 24 hours later. The result demonstrated that those "who had practiced retrieval were more accurate at writing/ drawing the Chinese characters than were those who had studied repeatedly"

(p. 1009). regardless of their learning conditions. In a similar vein. the study conducted by Karpicke and Roediger III (2008) employed a more elaborative research design to observe students' performance in the following four conditions: repeatedly studying and being tested; repeatedly studying without being further tested; repeatedly being tested without further studying; no further studying while still being tested. A list of 40 Swahili-English word pairs was administrated and the results proved that repeated testing lead to a stronger long-term memory in the delayed recall test a week later. Method A total number of 63 beginning level CFL students enrolled at two public universities in the U. S. participated in this study. To minimize differences between instructors and schools. instructors followed the same

textbook. synchronized their teaching schedules and collaborated on home-

work and quiz preparation. Participants were assigned to either a treatment group or a control group. Both groups received a list of 40 unlearned disyl- labic words that were loosely related to their Chinese proficien-

cy. Participants had already learned 30 % of the characters in these
words. Character complexity was also controlled to reflect the learning situ-

ation of beginning level Chinese students. namely. only 20% of the char-

SLIDE 6

Integrating mixed-sensory mode presentation and practice testing at the beginning level Chinese vocabulary instruction

acters had 12 strokes or more. The author only analyzed the data of those who were not of a Chinese or East Asian linguistic background and the ex- clusion reduced the number of participants down to 30 for the treatment group and 27 for the control group. Participants in the control group learn- ed the words presented in mixed sensory mode with hyperlinks employed to deliver the vocalization of words and their English equivalents. In one vocabulary study session. students had 20 minutes to browse. take notes

and review. They received one study session in four consecutive days and a

vocabulary test was given immediately after the fourth day's study ses-

sion. No textbook. notes or reference of any kind was allowed. Another

round of tests was given a week after without prior notice. Both tests de- manded students to provide the English meaning and pinyin for 20 words randomly chosen from the 40-word pool. The treatment group followed the exact procedure and received identi- cal material to the control group. but they were asked to complete a 15- question long practice test right after the study session in the first three

days. The major portion of the practice test tried to assess their memory of

the sounds and meaning from a variety of angles. instead of grinding out pinyin and English equivalents from one Chinese word to another. For ex-

ample. some questions regarded the recall of words with a first tone +

fourth tone structure, or words that can be categorized along with the concept "farm", or words that contain at least one u*" (tree) radical, just to name a few. Result

The author conducted a 2 X 2 one-between-one-within subjects ANO- VA test to measure the effect of practice testing amongst participants who

received MSM presentation. Participants' scores on the vocabulary test were the dependent variable. The opportunities to take practice tests is a between-groups factor and the time (day 4 and a week after day 4) is the within group factor. A significant main effect was found for practice testing

(F=4.94. p < . 05) . Two follow up independent T-tests revealed that the

treatment and control group did not sCOre differently when they exited the 831

Integrating mixed-sensory mode presentation and practice testing

at the beginning level Chinese vocabulary instruction

acters had 12 strokes or more. The author only analyzed the data of those who were not of a Chinese or East Asian linguistic background and the ex- clusion reduced the number of participants down to 30 for the treatment group and 27 for the control group. Participants in the control group learn- ed the words presented in mixed sensory mode with hyperlinks employed to deliver the vocalization of words and their English equivalents. In one vocabulary study session. students had 20 minutes to browse. take notes

and review. They received one study session in four consecutive days and a

vocabulary test was given immediately after the fourth day's study ses-

sion. No textbook. notes or reference of any kind was allowed. Another

round of tests was given a week after without prior notice. Both tests de- manded students to provide the English meaning and pinyin for 20 words randomly chosen from the 40-word pool. The treatment group followed the exact procedure and received identi- cal material to the control group. but they were asked to complete a 15- question long practice test right after the study session in the first three

days. The major portion of the practice test tried to assess their memory of

the sounds and meaning from a variety of angles. instead of grinding out pinyin and English equivalents from one Chinese word to another. For ex-

ample. some questions regarded the recall of words with a first tone +

fourth tone structure, or words that can be categorized along with the concept "farm", or words that contain at least one u*" (tree) radical, just to name a few. Result

The author conducted a 2 X 2 one-between-one-within subjects ANO- VA test to measure the effect of practice testing amongst participants who

received MSM presentation. Participants' scores on the vocabulary test were the dependent variable. The opportunities to take practice tests is a between-groups factor and the time (day 4 and a week after day 4) is the within group factor. A significant main effect was found for practice testing

(F=4.94. p < . 05) . Two follow up independent T-tests revealed that the

treatment and control group did not sCOre differently when they exited the 831

SLIDE 7

832

study (t~

1. 37, p ~.

19), while the difference started to reveal itself a

week later (t~2. 16, p <. 05) with a medium effect size (d~O. 57), and those who received practice testing (M~24.13,

SD~8.17)

made significantly fewer errors than those in the control group (M ~

19. 37, SD ~

8.49) . Also, the main effect for time was found to be significant (F~ 25.20, p <. 05), with a small effect to medium size (partial 'f/

2 ~.

31) and a high observed power at. 98. The follow up contrast analysis suggests that participants made significantly fewer mistakes at the immediate end of the study compared with themselves than a week later,

(t~

3.01, p <.05) for the treatment group and (t~4. 00, P < .05) for the control group, with a medium effect size (d~O. 55) for the treatment group and a large effect size (d~O. 78) for the control group. The interaction of practice testing and time was not significant (F~1. 15, p~. 28) . Discussion This study proves that vocabulary instruction should not happen in i-

solation without stimulation from more than one sense. The aural signals accompanying the visual images not only prevented the detrimental tenden- cy of overloading the working memory when three values of a word (the

rthographic, the phonological and the semantic) were simultaneously

presented to the participants, but also helped participants differentiate and distribute each value to multiple mental schemas where they could be enco- ded without interference from similar codes. Beginning level learners find this skill of being able to encode and store information in separate tableau particularly valuable because according to them many Chinese words seem to look or sound extremely similar. In addition, Chinese is a tonal language and its native speakers always emphasize the accuracy of a given word's

tone. In the absence of aural input, CFL learners by and large resort to

rote memorization and tedious repetition to retain the tonal features of a

word. Studies have long shown that the retention of information in the

long-term memory does not depend on how long information is processed butrather at what depth it is processed (Arthur 1997; Fergus & Robert 1972; Loaiza et al. 2011) . MSM presentation therefore deserves more at-

832

study (t~

1. 37, p ~.

19), while the difference started to reveal itself a

week later (t~2. 16, p <. 05) with a medium effect size (d~O. 57), and those who received practice testing (M~24.13,

SD~8.17)

made significantly fewer errors than those in the control group (M ~

19. 37, SD ~

8.49) . Also, the main effect for time was found to be significant (F~ 25.20, p <. 05), with a small effect to medium size (partial 'f/

2 ~.

31) and a high observed power at. 98. The follow up contrast analysis suggests that participants made significantly fewer mistakes at the immediate end of the study compared with themselves than a week later,

(t~

3.01, p <.05) for the treatment group and (t~4. 00, P < .05) for the control group, with a medium effect size (d~O. 55) for the treatment group and a large effect size (d~O. 78) for the control group. The interaction of practice testing and time was not significant (F~1. 15, p~. 28) . Discussion This study proves that vocabulary instruction should not happen in i-

solation without stimulation from more than one sense. The aural signals accompanying the visual images not only prevented the detrimental tenden- cy of overloading the working memory when three values of a word (the

rthographic, the phonological and the semantic) were simultaneously

presented to the participants, but also helped participants differentiate and distribute each value to multiple mental schemas where they could be enco- ded without interference from similar codes. Beginning level learners find this skill of being able to encode and store information in separate tableau particularly valuable because according to them many Chinese words seem to look or sound extremely similar. In addition, Chinese is a tonal language and its native speakers always emphasize the accuracy of a given word's

tone. In the absence of aural input, CFL learners by and large resort to

rote memorization and tedious repetition to retain the tonal features of a

word. Studies have long shown that the retention of information in the

long-term memory does not depend on how long information is processed butrather at what depth it is processed (Arthur 1997; Fergus & Robert 1972; Loaiza et al. 2011) . MSM presentation therefore deserves more at-

SLIDE 8

I n t e g r a t i n g m i x e d

s

e n s

r

y m

d

e p r e s e n t a t i

n

and p r a c t i c e t e s t i n g a t t h e b e g i n n i n g l e v e l C h i n e s e v

c

a b u l a r y i n s t r u c t i

n

tention so deeper and more connected information processing can be a- chieved by novice learners who are new to a foreign language.

T h i s study a l s

c
n

f i r m e d t h e a d v a n t a g e

f

u s i n g p r a c t i c e t e s t i n g a

m
n

g b e g i n n i n g l e v e l CFL l e a r n e r s t

i

m p r

v

e t h e i r l

n

g

t

e r m r e t e n t i

n
f

information so they can better understand and pronounce words in Chi-

n e s e . T h e r e s u l t s c h a l l e n g e c

n

v e n t i

n

a l w i s d

m

t h a t marks the c a p a c i t y t

recall novel information from memory as the terminal point of learning and

i s i n a c c

r

d a n c e with s t u d i e s i n s i m i l a r a r e a s ( R a w s

n

& . D u n l

s

k y 2 1 2 ) . It suggests that even after students have mastered a certain skill or inter-

nalized new information, the durability of the learning is questionable in the long term when there is no established mechanism to reevaluate and re-

i n f

r

c e w h a t h a s a l r e a d y b e e n l e a r n e d . T h e rate

f

f

r

g e t t i n g a m

n

g p a r t i c i

p

a n t s f r

m

the c

n

t r

l

g r

u

p

ught

t

s

e r v e a s a w a k e u p c a l l f

r

b

t

h students and teachers alike to face the issue that the capability to learn

short-term does not equate to the capacity to use such information long term.

T i m e i s a n

t

h e r f a c t

r

b

t

h t e a c h e r s a n d s t u d e n t s must pay close at- t e n t i

n

t

f
r

t h e p u r p

s

e

f

a c h i e v i n g better, l

n

g e r r e t e n t i

n

. W i t h

u

t the necessary reinforcement between the immediate and delayed post-test, the auxiliary function of the modality effect in mnemonics quickly dissipates a n d l a p s e s i n t

i

n s i g n i f i c a n c e . S t u d i e s h a v e p r

v

e n t h a t e x t e r n a l l y s u p p l i e d

mnemonic aids, such as visual illustrations of characters (Kuo & Hooper

2 4 )

r

instructor p r

v

i d e d e x p l a n a t i

n

s (Shen 2004), d

h

e l p p a r t i c i

pants score higher with a better short-term retention rate in pronunciation

a n d n a m i n g task, b u t c a n not b e

b

s e r v e d a g a i n a f t e r an e x t e n d e d p e r i

d
f

time.

R e f e r e n c e s

[ l J

Abbott, Edwina, " O n t h e A n a l y s i s

f

t h e F a c t

r

s

f

R e c a l l i n t h e L e a r n i n g P r

c

e s s . " P s y c h

l
g

i c a l M

n
g

r a p h s 1 1 . 1 (1909): 1 5 9

177.

[2J

A b r a h a m , L e e . " C

m

p u t e r

M

e d i a t e d G l

s

s e s i n S e c

n

d L a n

g

u a g e R e a d i n g C

m

p r e h e n s i

n

a n d V

c

a b u l a r y L e a r n i n g : A M e t a

I

n t e g r a t i n g m i x e d

s

e n s

r

y m

d

e p r e s e n t a t i

n

and p r a c t i c e t e s t i n g a t t h e b e g i n n i n g l e v e l C h i n e s e v

c

a b u l a r y i n s t r u c t i

n

tention so deeper and more connected information processing can be a- chieved by novice learners who are new to a foreign language.

T h i s study a l s

c
n

f i r m e d t h e a d v a n t a g e

f

u s i n g p r a c t i c e t e s t i n g a

m
n

g b e g i n n i n g l e v e l CFL l e a r n e r s t

i

m p r

v

e t h e i r l

n

g

t

e r m r e t e n t i

n
f

information so they can better understand and pronounce words in Chi-

n e s e . T h e r e s u l t s c h a l l e n g e c

n

v e n t i

n

a l w i s d

m

t h a t marks the c a p a c i t y t

recall novel information from memory as the terminal point of learning and

i s i n a c c

r

d a n c e with s t u d i e s i n s i m i l a r a r e a s ( R a w s

n

& . D u n l

s

k y 2 1 2 ) . It suggests that even after students have mastered a certain skill or inter-

nalized new information, the durability of the learning is questionable in the long term when there is no established mechanism to reevaluate and re-

i n f

r

c e w h a t h a s a l r e a d y b e e n l e a r n e d . T h e rate

f

f

r

g e t t i n g a m

n

g p a r t i c i

p

a n t s f r

m

the c

n

t r

l

g r

u

p

ught

t

s

e r v e a s a w a k e u p c a l l f

r

b

t

h students and teachers alike to face the issue that the capability to learn

short-term does not equate to the capacity to use such information long term.

T i m e i s a n

t

h e r f a c t

r

b

t

h t e a c h e r s a n d s t u d e n t s must pay close at- t e n t i

n

t

f
r

t h e p u r p

s

e

f

a c h i e v i n g better, l

n

g e r r e t e n t i

n

. W i t h

u

t the necessary reinforcement between the immediate and delayed post-test, the auxiliary function of the modality effect in mnemonics quickly dissipates a n d l a p s e s i n t

i

n s i g n i f i c a n c e . S t u d i e s h a v e p r

v

e n t h a t e x t e r n a l l y s u p p l i e d

mnemonic aids, such as visual illustrations of characters (Kuo & Hooper

2 4 )

r

instructor p r

v

i d e d e x p l a n a t i

n

s (Shen 2004), d

h

e l p p a r t i c i

pants score higher with a better short-term retention rate in pronunciation

a n d n a m i n g task, b u t c a n not b e

b

s e r v e d a g a i n a f t e r an e x t e n d e d p e r i

d
f

time.

R e f e r e n c e s

[ l J

Abbott, Edwina, " O n t h e A n a l y s i s

f

t h e F a c t

r

s

f

R e c a l l i n t h e L e a r n i n g P r

c

e s s . " P s y c h

l
g

i c a l M

n
g

r a p h s 1 1 . 1 (1909): 1 5 9

177.

[2J

A b r a h a m , L e e . " C

m

p u t e r

M

e d i a t e d G l

s

s e s i n S e c

n

d L a n

g

u a g e R e a d i n g C

m

p r e h e n s i

n

a n d V

c

a b u l a r y L e a r n i n g : A M e t a

SLIDE 9

834 Analysis." Computer Assisted Language Learning 21. 3 (2008): 199

226.

[3J Andres, Haywardand Petersen, Candice. "Presentation Media,

Information Complexity, and Learning Outcomes." Journal of Educational Technology Systems 30. 3 (2002): 225-246. [4J Arthur, Glenberg. "What Memory is for: Creating Meaning in the Service of Action." Behavioral and Brain Sciences 20. 1 (1997): 41

50.

[5J Bai, Jianhua. "Making Multimedia an Integral Part of Curricular Innovation." Journal of Chinese Language Teachers Association 38.2 (2003): 1- 16. [6J Bassetti, Benedetta. "Orthographic Input and Phonological Rep-

resentations in Learners of Chinese as a Foreign Language." Written Lan- guage and Literacy 9. 1 (2006): 95-114.

[7J Bjorn, Kakkuri, Irma, Pirkko, and Leppanen, Paavo H. T.

"Accelerating Early Language Development with Multi-Sensory Training." Early Child Development and Care 182. 3-4 (2012): 435-451.

[8J Chan, Jason. "When Does Retrieval Induce Forgetting and

When Does It Induce Facilitation? Implications for Retrieval Inhibition, Testing Effect, and Text Processing." Journal of Memory and Language

61. 2 (2009): 153-170.

[9J Chuang, Hui-Ya and Ku , Heng-Yu. "The Effect of Computer- Based Multimedia Instruction with Chinese Character Recognition." Edu- cational Media International 48. 1 (2011): 27-41. [10J Chung, Kevin. "Effective Use of Hanyu Pinyin and English Translations as Extra Stimulus Prompts on Learning of Chinese Characters." Educational Psychology Review 22. 2 (2002): 150-164.

[l1J Chung, Kevin. "What Effect Do Mixed Sensory Mode Instruc-

tional Formats Have on Both Novice and Experienced Learners of Chinese Characters?" Learning and Instruction 18. 1 (2008): 96-108. [12J Cull, William. "Untangling the Benefits of Multiple Study Op- portunities and Repeated Testing for Cued Recall." Applied Cognitive Psy- chology &. Marketing 14. 3 (2000): 215-235.

834 Analysis." Computer Assisted Language Learning 21. 3 (2008): 199

226.

[3J Andres, Haywardand Petersen, Candice. "Presentation Media,

Information Complexity, and Learning Outcomes." Journal of Educational Technology Systems 30. 3 (2002): 225-246. [4J Arthur, Glenberg. "What Memory is for: Creating Meaning in the Service of Action." Behavioral and Brain Sciences 20. 1 (1997): 41

50.

[5J Bai, Jianhua. "Making Multimedia an Integral Part of Curricular Innovation." Journal of Chinese Language Teachers Association 38.2 (2003): 1- 16. [6J Bassetti, Benedetta. "Orthographic Input and Phonological Rep-

resentations in Learners of Chinese as a Foreign Language." Written Lan- guage and Literacy 9. 1 (2006): 95-114.

[7J Bjorn, Kakkuri, Irma, Pirkko, and Leppanen, Paavo H. T.

"Accelerating Early Language Development with Multi-Sensory Training." Early Child Development and Care 182. 3-4 (2012): 435-451.

[8J Chan, Jason. "When Does Retrieval Induce Forgetting and

When Does It Induce Facilitation? Implications for Retrieval Inhibition, Testing Effect, and Text Processing." Journal of Memory and Language

61. 2 (2009): 153-170.

[9J Chuang, Hui-Ya and Ku , Heng-Yu. "The Effect of Computer- Based Multimedia Instruction with Chinese Character Recognition." Edu- cational Media International 48. 1 (2011): 27-41. [10J Chung, Kevin. "Effective Use of Hanyu Pinyin and English Translations as Extra Stimulus Prompts on Learning of Chinese Characters." Educational Psychology Review 22. 2 (2002): 150-164.

[l1J Chung, Kevin. "What Effect Do Mixed Sensory Mode Instruc-

tional Formats Have on Both Novice and Experienced Learners of Chinese Characters?" Learning and Instruction 18. 1 (2008): 96-108. [12J Cull, William. "Untangling the Benefits of Multiple Study Op- portunities and Repeated Testing for Cued Recall." Applied Cognitive Psy- chology &. Marketing 14. 3 (2000): 215-235.

SLIDE 10

Integrating mixed-sensory mode presentation and practice testing at the beginning level Chinese vocabulary instruction

[13J Fergus, Craik and Robert, Lockhart. "Levels of Processing: A Framework for Memory Research. " Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 11. 6 (1972): 671-684. [14J Glover, John. "The" testing" phenomenon: Not Gone but Nearly Forgotten." Journal of Educational Psychology 81. 3 (989): 392

399.

[15J Jin, Honggang. "Empirical Evidence on Character Recognition in Multimedia Chinese Tasks." Concentric: Studies in English literature and Linguistics 29.2 (2003): 36- 58. [16J Jin, Honggang. "Multimedia Effects and Chinese Character Processing: An Empirical Study of CFL Learners from Three Different Or- thographic Backgrounds" Journal of Chinese Language Teachers Associa- tion 41. 3 (2006): 35-56. [17 J Jones, Linda. "Supporting Student Differences in Listening Comprehension and Vocabulary Learning with Multimedia Annotations. " CALICO Journal 26. 2 (2009): 267-289. [18J KANG, SEAN. "Enhancing vi suo spatial Learning: The Bene- fit of Retrieval Practice." Memory &. Cognition 38.8 (2010): 1009

1017.

[19J Karpicke, Jeffrey. and Roediger, Henry lIi. "The Critical Im- portance of Retrieval for Learning." Science 319. 5865 (2008): 966- 968. [20J Ke, Chuanren. "Effects of Strategies on the Learning of Chi- nese Characters among Foreign Language Students." Journal of the Chi- nese Language Teachers Association 33. 2 (1998): 93-112. [21J Kuo, Mei-Liang and Hooper, Simon. "The Effects of Visual and Verbal Coding Mnemonics on Learning Chinese Characters in Comput- er-Based Instruction." Educational Technology Research and Development 52.3 (2004): 23- 38. [22J Lee, ChangHoan. "Testing the Role of Phonology in Reading: Focus on Sentence Processing." Journal of Psycholinguistic Research 38. 4 (2009): 333-344. [23J Li, Junhong and Lee, Kunshan "The Graphic Factor in the Teaching and Learning of Chinese Characters." Journal of Chinese Lan-

Integrating mixed-sensory mode presentation and practice testing at the beginning level Chinese vocabulary instruction

[13J Fergus, Craik and Robert, Lockhart. "Levels of Processing: A Framework for Memory Research. " Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 11. 6 (1972): 671-684. [14J Glover, John. "The" testing" phenomenon: Not Gone but Nearly Forgotten." Journal of Educational Psychology 81. 3 (989): 392

399.

[15J Jin, Honggang. "Empirical Evidence on Character Recognition in Multimedia Chinese Tasks." Concentric: Studies in English literature and Linguistics 29.2 (2003): 36- 58. [16J Jin, Honggang. "Multimedia Effects and Chinese Character Processing: An Empirical Study of CFL Learners from Three Different Or- thographic Backgrounds" Journal of Chinese Language Teachers Associa- tion 41. 3 (2006): 35-56. [17 J Jones, Linda. "Supporting Student Differences in Listening Comprehension and Vocabulary Learning with Multimedia Annotations. " CALICO Journal 26. 2 (2009): 267-289. [18J KANG, SEAN. "Enhancing vi suo spatial Learning: The Bene- fit of Retrieval Practice." Memory &. Cognition 38.8 (2010): 1009

1017.

[19J Karpicke, Jeffrey. and Roediger, Henry lIi. "The Critical Im- portance of Retrieval for Learning." Science 319. 5865 (2008): 966- 968. [20J Ke, Chuanren. "Effects of Strategies on the Learning of Chi- nese Characters among Foreign Language Students." Journal of the Chi- nese Language Teachers Association 33. 2 (1998): 93-112. [21J Kuo, Mei-Liang and Hooper, Simon. "The Effects of Visual and Verbal Coding Mnemonics on Learning Chinese Characters in Comput- er-Based Instruction." Educational Technology Research and Development 52.3 (2004): 23- 38. [22J Lee, ChangHoan. "Testing the Role of Phonology in Reading: Focus on Sentence Processing." Journal of Psycholinguistic Research 38. 4 (2009): 333-344. [23J Li, Junhong and Lee, Kunshan "The Graphic Factor in the Teaching and Learning of Chinese Characters." Journal of Chinese Lan-

SLIDE 11

836

guage Teachers Association 41. 1 (2006), 79- 92. [ 24 J Loaiza.

Vanessa. McCabe. David.

Youngblood, Jessie.

Rose. Nathan. and Myerson. Joel. "The Influence of Levels of Process-

ing on Recall from Working Memory and Delayed Recall Tasks." Journal

f Experimental Psychology, Learning. Memory. and Cognition. 37. 5

(2011), 1258- 1263. [25J McDaniela. Mark. Andersonb. Janis. Derbisha. Mary. and

Morrisettec. Nova. "Testing the Testing Effect in the Classroom." Euro-

pean Journal of Cognitive Psychology 19.4- 5 (2007), 494- 513. [ 26 J Paivio. Allan. Mental Representation, A Dual-Coding Ap-

proach. New York, Oxford University Press. 1986. Print Pyc. Mary.

and Rawson. Katherine. "Testing the Retrieval Effort Hypothesis, Does Greater Difficulty Correctly Recalling Information Lead to Higher Levels of Memory?" Journal of Memory &. Language 60.4 (2009), 437-447. [ 27J Rawson. Katherine, and Dunlosky. John. "When is Practice Testing Most Effective for Improving the Durability and Efficiency of Student Learning?" Educational Psychology Review 24. 3 (2012), 419

435.

[28J Roediger. Henry III. Pooja. Agarwal. Mark. McDaniel. and Kathleen McDermott. "Test-Enhanced Learning in the Classroom, Long- Term Improvements from Quizzing." Journal of experimental psychology, Human memory and learning 17.4 (2011), 382-395. [29J Roediger. Henry III. and Karpicke. Jeffery. "The Power of Testing Memory, Basic Research and Implications for Educational Practice." Perspectives on Psychological Science 1. 3 (2006), 181-210. [30J Shen. Helen. "Level of Cognitive Processing, Effects on Char- acter Learning among Non-Native Learners of Chinese as a Foreign Lan- guage." Language and Education 18. 2 (2004), 167-182. [31J Tabbers. Huib. Martens. Rob. and van Merrienboer. Jeo- reno "Multimedia Instructions and Cognitive Load Theory, Effects of Mo- dality and Cueing. " British Journal of Educational Psychology 74.1 (2004), 71-81. [ 32 J Wheeler. Mark. Ewers. Michael. and Buonanno. Joseph.

836

guage Teachers Association 41. 1 (2006), 79- 92. [ 24 J Loaiza.

Vanessa. McCabe. David.

Youngblood, Jessie.

Rose. Nathan. and Myerson. Joel. "The Influence of Levels of Process-

ing on Recall from Working Memory and Delayed Recall Tasks." Journal

f Experimental Psychology, Learning. Memory. and Cognition. 37. 5

(2011), 1258- 1263. [25J McDaniela. Mark. Andersonb. Janis. Derbisha. Mary. and

Morrisettec. Nova. "Testing the Testing Effect in the Classroom." Euro-

pean Journal of Cognitive Psychology 19.4- 5 (2007), 494- 513. [ 26 J Paivio. Allan. Mental Representation, A Dual-Coding Ap-

proach. New York, Oxford University Press. 1986. Print Pyc. Mary.

and Rawson. Katherine. "Testing the Retrieval Effort Hypothesis, Does Greater Difficulty Correctly Recalling Information Lead to Higher Levels of Memory?" Journal of Memory &. Language 60.4 (2009), 437-447. [ 27J Rawson. Katherine, and Dunlosky. John. "When is Practice Testing Most Effective for Improving the Durability and Efficiency of Student Learning?" Educational Psychology Review 24. 3 (2012), 419

435.

[28J Roediger. Henry III. Pooja. Agarwal. Mark. McDaniel. and Kathleen McDermott. "Test-Enhanced Learning in the Classroom, Long- Term Improvements from Quizzing." Journal of experimental psychology, Human memory and learning 17.4 (2011), 382-395. [29J Roediger. Henry III. and Karpicke. Jeffery. "The Power of Testing Memory, Basic Research and Implications for Educational Practice." Perspectives on Psychological Science 1. 3 (2006), 181-210. [30J Shen. Helen. "Level of Cognitive Processing, Effects on Char- acter Learning among Non-Native Learners of Chinese as a Foreign Lan- guage." Language and Education 18. 2 (2004), 167-182. [31J Tabbers. Huib. Martens. Rob. and van Merrienboer. Jeo- reno "Multimedia Instructions and Cognitive Load Theory, Effects of Mo- dality and Cueing. " British Journal of Educational Psychology 74.1 (2004), 71-81. [ 32 J Wheeler. Mark. Ewers. Michael. and Buonanno. Joseph.

SLIDE 12

I n t e g r a t i n g m i x e d

s

e n s

r

y m

d

e

pres~ntation

and p r a c t i c e t e s t i n g a t t h e b e g i n n i n g l e v e l C h i n e s e v

c

a b u l a r y i n s t r u c t i

n

"Different Rates of Forgetting Following Study versus Test Trials." Mem-

ry

& . Cognition 11. 6 ( 2 3 ) : 5 7 1

5

8 . [33J Zhang, Zhengsheng. "Myth, Reality and Character Instruction in the 21st Century." lournal of Chinese Language Teachers Association

44. 1 (2009): 69-80.

Author's Description

Yongan Wu, Ph. D., completed his master's and doctoral degree at University of Oklahoma. He is teaching Chinese at University of North F l

r

i d a . H i s r e s e a r c h i n t e r e s t s i n c l u d e s e c

n

d l a n g u a g e a c q u i s i t i

n

a n d c r

s

s

c

u i t u r a l s t u d i e s .

8 3 7

I n t e g r a t i n g m i x e d

s

e n s

r

y m

d

e

pres~ntation

and p r a c t i c e t e s t i n g a t t h e b e g i n n i n g l e v e l C h i n e s e v

c

a b u l a r y i n s t r u c t i

n

"Different Rates of Forgetting Following Study versus Test Trials." Mem-

ry

& . Cognition 11. 6 ( 2 3 ) : 5 7 1

5

8 . [33J Zhang, Zhengsheng. "Myth, Reality and Character Instruction in the 21st Century." lournal of Chinese Language Teachers Association

44. 1 (2009): 69-80.

Author's Description

Yongan Wu, Ph. D., completed his master's and doctoral degree at University of Oklahoma. He is teaching Chinese at University of North F l

r

i d a . H i s r e s e a r c h i n t e r e s t s i n c l u d e s e c

n

d l a n g u a g e a c q u i s i t i

n

a n d c r

s

s

c

u i t u r a l s t u d i e s .

8 3 7