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Linguistics: Morphology MSc Bridge Course, October 2011 Dr. Alexis Palmer : apalmer@coli.uni-saarland.de 1 Preliminaries What is linguistics? systematic study of the principles governing the use of language theoretical lxcs:

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Linguistics: Morphology

MSc Bridge Course, October 2011

  • Dr. Alexis Palmer : apalmer@coli.uni-saarland.de

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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011

Preliminaries What is linguistics? ✦ systematic study of the principles governing the use of language ✦ theoretical lxcs: attempt to formalize the rules and structures behind language use

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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011

Preliminaries What is linguistics? ✦ systematic study of the principles governing the use of language ✦ theoretical lxcs: attempt to formalize the rules and structures behind language use

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When we talk about language:

  • descriptive vs. prescriptive approaches
  • diachronic vs. synchronic study
  • competence vs. performance

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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011

Human language What makes something human (natural) language? ✦ creativity ✦ recursion ✦ arbitrary relationship between sound & meaning

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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011

Human language What makes something human (natural) language? ✦ creativity ✦ recursion ✦ arbitrary relationship between sound & meaning

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More than 6000 languages spoken in the world:

  • 1M+ speakers: ̃200
  • primarily (or only) spoken: more than 50%
  • total # of lgs. rapidly decreasing

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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011

What does it mean to know a language?

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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011

What does it mean to know a language? ✦ sound system: possible sounds in the lg, how they can and cannot combine ✦ lexicon: associations of sounds with meanings, morphology ✦ grammar: structures and meaning ✦ social/pragmatic customs: personal and social strategies for language use

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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011

What does it mean to know a language? ✦ sound system ✦ lexicon ✦ grammar ✦ social/pragmatic customs

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Our topic for today is morphology

  • words & how they’re formed
  • internal structure of word forms
  • performing morphological analysis

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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011

On Morphology

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Fundamentals: Word classes I Morphemes, affixation, terminology Inflectional morphology: Morphological paradigms Regular and irregular forms Derivational morphology: Internal structure of words Productivity, compounds, etc.

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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011

What does it mean to know a WORD?

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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011

What does it mean to know a WORD? ✦ sound ✦ meaning ✦ syntactic category / POS ✦ orthography (maybe)

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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011

What does it mean to know a WORD? ✦ sound ✦ meaning ✦ syntactic category / POS ✦ orthography (maybe)

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Mental lexical representation:

  • associates sound with meaning
  • includes information about grammatical status
  • includes irregular forms

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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011

On Morphology

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Fundamentals: Word classes I Morphemes, affixation, terminology Inflectional morphology: Morphological paradigms Regular and irregular forms Derivational morphology: Internal structure of words Productivity, compounds, etc.

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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011

Word classes I

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Content words Function words

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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011

Word classes I

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Content words Function words

  • play different roles in language
  • open vs. closed classes
  • function words in CoLi: stop words, author ID, etc.
  • POS categories (e.g. N, V, Prep, Adverb)
  • Q: are POS categories universal?

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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011

Morphemes

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Morphology is the study of

  • Internal structure of words
  • Processes by which words are formed

morphe = Greek “form”

  • ology = “science of/branch of knowledge concerning”

[Morphology is not etymology, lexicography, historical linguistics]

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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011

Morphemes

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Internal structure of words is rule-governed uneaten *eatenun unintentional *intentionalun Morphology is the study of

  • Internal structure of words
  • Processes by which words are formed

morphe = Greek “form”

  • ology = “science of/branch of knowledge concerning”

[Morphology is not etymology, lexicography, historical linguistics]

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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011

Morphemes

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Same form, different meanings happier, darker, fancier

walker, rider, opener

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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011

Morphemes

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Same form, different meanings comparative -er e.g. happier, darker, fancier

agentive -er e.g. walker, rider, opener

  • cf. finger (not fing + -er!)

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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011

Morphemes

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Same form, different meanings comparative -er e.g. happier, darker, fancier

agentive -er e.g. walker, rider, opener

  • cf. finger (not fing + -er!)

note changes in spelling allomorphy: same morpheme, different forms (e.g. actor)

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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011

Morphemes

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Same form, different meanings comparative -er e.g. happier, darker, fancier

agentive -er e.g. walker, rider, opener

  • cf. finger (not fing + -er!)

note changes in spelling allomorphy: same morpheme, different forms (e.g. actor)

Same meaning, different forms singer, songster “one who sings”

  • cf. monster (not monst + -er!)

** mental lexicon contains morphemes as well as words **

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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011

Morphemes

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Morpheme = minimal unit of linguistic meaning

  • arbitrary union of sound and meaning,
  • r of sound and grammatical function
  • cannot be further analyzed
  • morphological knowledge has two components:

individual morphemes & rules for their combination

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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011

Morphemes

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Free vs. bound morphemes free = able to stand alone bound = unable to stand alone, mostly affixes Morpheme = minimal unit of linguistic meaning

  • arbitrary union of sound and meaning,
  • r of sound and grammatical function
  • cannot be further analyzed
  • morphological knowledge has two components:

individual morphemes & rules for their combination

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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011

Affixation

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Morphologically complex words = root plus 1+ affix

  • roots do not always stand alone as words

painter, reread, conceive, linguist

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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011

Affixation

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Morphologically complex words = root plus 1+ affix

  • roots do not always stand alone as words

painter, reread, conceive, linguist

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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011

Affixation

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Morphologically complex words = root plus 1+ affix

  • roots do not always stand alone as words

painter, reread, conceive, linguist

  • bound roots cannot occur in isolation

ungainly/*gainly, downhearted/*hearted

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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011

Affixation

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Morphologically complex words = root plus 1+ affix

  • roots do not always stand alone as words
  • bound roots cannot occur in isolation
  • root + affix = stem/base/word
  • affixes precede, follow, interrupt, or envelope the

roots, stems/bases they attach to

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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011

Affixation

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Morphologically complex word = root plus 1+ affixes

  • roots do not always stand alone as words
  • bound roots cannot occur in isolation
  • root + affix = stem/base/word
  • affixes precede, follow, interrupt, or envelope the

roots, stems/bases they attach to

Types of affix (by position)

  • prefix
  • suffix
  • infix
  • circumfix (aka discontinuous morpheme)

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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011

Affixation

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Morphologically complex word = root plus 1+ affixes

  • roots do not always stand alone as words
  • bound roots cannot occur in isolation
  • root + affix = stem/base/word
  • affixes precede, follow, interrupt, or envelope the

roots, stems/bases they attach to

Types of affix (by position)

  • prefix premeditated,
prejudice;
bipolar,
bisexual
  • suffix sleeping,
eating,
running,
climbing;typist,
pianist,
novelist;
manly,
sickly
  • infix abso‐freakin‐lutely,
Kalama‐freakin‐zoo

  • circumfix (aka discontinuous morpheme) geliebt
[German]

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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011

Types of morphology

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Languages differ in type & extent of morphology analytic

inflectional/fusional agglutinating

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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011

Types of morphology

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Ojibwe example

(6a) ininiw ogi:ba∫kizwa:an ininiw o- gi:- baa∫kizw -aa -an man 3p PST shoot 3p th-dir OBV ‘The man shot him/her.’

Languages differ in type & extent of morphology analytic Chinese

inflectional/fusional Latin, German, Mayan lgs, Semitic lgs agglutinating Turkish, Ojibwe, many Native American lgs

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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011

Types of morphology

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Languages differ in type & extent of morphology analytic Chinese

inflectional/fusional Latin, German, Mayan lgs, Semitic lgs agglutinating Turkish, Ojibwe, many Native American lgs

Nearly all lgs have two types of affixes (by function)

inflectional change words wrt grammatical status derivational form new words

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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011

On Morphology

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Fundamentals: Word classes I Morphemes, affixation, terminology Inflectional morphology: Morphological paradigms Regular and irregular forms Derivational morphology: Internal structure of words Productivity, compounds, etc.

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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011

Inflectional morphology

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Inflectional morphemes

  • bound morphemes, strictly grammatical function!
  • add no lexical meaning
  • never change POS (grammatical category) of stems
  • are highly productive

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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011

Inflectional morphology

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Inflectional morphemes

  • bound morphemes, strictly grammatical function!
  • add no lexical meaning
  • never change POS (grammatical category) of stems
  • are highly productive

Morphological paradigm

  • set of related inflectional morphemes
  • relevant for single grammatical category

case paradigm [der, den, dem, des +s] verb agreement paradigm [walk, walks] verb tense paradigm [walk, walked, has walked]

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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011

English inflectional morphology

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Relatively impoverished wrt inflectional morphology

  • s

3rd person singular present Verb

  • ed

past tense Verb

  • ing

progressive (aspect) Verb

  • s

plural Noun

  • ’s

possessive Noun

  • er

comparative Adjective

  • est

superlative Adjective

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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011

Regularity, exceptions, and suppletion

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Inflection is quite regular in English

  • with regularity, rules rather than forms stored in lexicon
  • Some irregular forms
  • plurals: goose-geese, moose-moose, mouse-mice
  • past tense verb forms: go-went, think-thought, bring-

brought, sing-sang, is-was

  • ** also variation ** : thin-thinner, right-more right

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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011

Regularity, exceptions, and suppletion

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Inflection is quite regular in English

  • with regularity, rules rather than forms stored in lexicon
  • children go through overgeneralization stage
  • irregular/suppletive forms require individual learning

and “storage” CoLi: lookup or rule writing?

  • Some irregular forms
  • plurals: goose-geese, moose-moose, mouse-mice
  • past tense verb forms: go-went, think-thought, bring-

brought, sing-sang, is-was

  • ** also variation ** : thin-thinner, right-more right

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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011

Regularity, exceptions, and suppletion

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Inflection is quite regular in English

  • with regularity, rules rather than forms stored in lexicon
  • children go through overgeneralization stage
  • irregular/suppletive forms require individual learning

and “storage” CoLi: lookup or rule writing?

  • new words entering lg generally inflect regularly

Some irregular forms

  • plurals: goose-geese, moose-moose, mouse-mice
  • past tense verb forms: go-went, think-thought, bring-

brought, sing-sang, is-was

  • ** also variation ** : thin-thinner, right-more right

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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011

On Morphology

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Fundamentals: Word classes I Morphemes, affixation, terminology Inflectional morphology: Morphological paradigms Regular and irregular forms Derivational morphology: Internal structure of words Productivity, compounds, etc.

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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011

Derivational morphology

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Derivational morphemes

  • adding to base derives new word w/ new meaning
  • clear semantic content
  • often change POS (grammatical category) of stems
  • vary in their productivity
  • may trigger phonological changes (specific/specificity)

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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011

Derivational morphology

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Derivational morphemes

  • adding to base derives new word w/ new meaning
  • clear semantic content
  • often change POS (grammatical category) of stems
  • vary in their productivity
  • may trigger phonological changes (specific/specificity)
  • in Eng, derivational processes apply before inflectional

Examples in English?

  • noun --> verb; noun --> adjective; noun --> noun
  • verb --> noun; verb --> adjective; verb --> verb
  • adjective --> noun; adjective --> adverb, adj --> adj

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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011

Recap: types of English morphemes

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!"

#$%&'()*+! ,-./*0,0) 1-2%3 4.00

  • /0%!5'6))!

#5-%70%7!-. '08(56'+

5'-)03!5'6))

#42%57(-%!-. &.6,,67(56'+!

30.(967(-%6' (%4'057(-%6' /.04(8 )244(8 )244(8

%-2%):! 63;057(90):! 90.1):! 6390.1) 5-%;2%57(-%): /.0/-)(7(-%): 6.7(5'0):!/.-%-2%): 628('(6.(0)

!!"#$"!%&$"!'(" !'$"!%')$"!*'( !%"(""!%+ ",-$"!!')$"!.%") /&%!$"0"!$"12"!

[Image credit: Tania Augustinova]

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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011

Hierarchical structure of words

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Derivational morphemes

  • morphemes are added in a fixed order
  • order reflects hierarchical structure of the word
  • structure to some extent determines meaning

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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011

Hierarchical structure of words

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Derivational morphemes

  • morphemes are added in a fixed order
  • order reflects hierarchical structure of the word
  • structure to some extent determines meaning

Derivational process

  • derive ‘unsystematically’
  • derive ‘re-finalizes’

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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011

Structural ambiguity in morphology

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!"

/0! !"#$%&'(#) 123$!(+)4!$3!+4!)3'5467 !0! !"#$%&'(#) 1(+)4!$3!+4!&2)3'5467 (684'$,94 (684'$,94 94%+

!" #$%& '(#)

94%+ 94%+ (684'$,94

!" '(#) #$%&

[Image credit: Tania Augustinova]

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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011

Productivity & lexical gaps

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Rule productivity

  • fully productive rules “can be used freely to form new

words from the list of free and bound morphemes”

  • usually can predict meaning of morphologically complex

words; exceptions need individual entries in the mental lexicon (e.g. unnerve, unearth)

  • back-formations are cute too! (e.g. monokini)

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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011

Productivity & lexical gaps

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Rule productivity

  • fully productive rules “can be used freely to form new

words from the list of free and bound morphemes”

  • usually can predict meaning of morphologically complex

words; exceptions need individual entries in the mental lexicon (e.g. unnerve, unearth)

  • back-formations are cute too! (e.g. monokini)

Lexical gaps

  • no language exhausts all logical possibilities for words

in its lexicon

  • some have phonological grounds (*inpossible,

*imdestructible)

  • others are seemingly accidental

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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011

Compounds

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Compounding robust process in most lgs

  • two or more words combined to form new word
  • head of compound influences meaning & POS
  • English compounds headed by rightmost word
  • meaning is often non-compositional, even idiomatic

(e.g. blackboard, looking glass, turncoat)

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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011

Compounds

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Compounding robust process in most lgs

  • two or more words combined to form new word
  • head of compound influences meaning & POS
  • English compounds headed by rightmost word
  • meaning is often non-compositional, even idiomatic

(e.g. blackboard, looking glass, turncoat)

Examples in English?

  • noun-noun compound
  • adj-adj compound
  • verb-noun compound

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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011

Structural ambiguity in compounds

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[Image credit: Tania Augustinova]

!!

<53-!3+93-)5!345!.42,= /)>! <4!.42,!;#.!5#%!345)= '#&' '#&' '#&'

!"# $%! &%'(

'#&' 4(?-25+/- '#&' '#&' '#&'

!"# $%! &%'(

'#&' 4(?-25+/-

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Morphological Analysis

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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011

Morphological analysis

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Computationally, often refers to:

  • morphological segmentation
  • morpheme glossing/tagging/labeling

In linguistics:

  • understanding morphology of new language
  • identifying morphemes and their meanings
  • identifying underlying morphological processes
  • morphology problems!

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Palmer, CoLi, UdS MSc Bridge Course, October 2011

Zulu morphology problem

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umfazi “married woman” abafazi “married women” umfani “boy” abafani “boys” umzali “parent” abazali “parents” umfundisi “teacher” abafundisi “teachers” umbazi “carver” ababazi “carvers” umlimi “farmer” abalimi “farmers” umfundi “reader” abafundi “readers” fundisa “to teach” funda “to read” lima “to cultivate” baza “to carve”

  • what is the singular morpheme in Zulu?
  • what is the plural morpheme?
  • what is the process for deriving a verb from a noun?
  • what is the stem meaning ‘read’? ‘carve’?

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