• Programs must be brought (from disk) into memory for them to be run • Main memory and registers are only storage CPU can access directly • Register access in one CPU clock (or less) • Main memory can take many cycles • Cache sits between main memory and CPU registers • Protection of memory access privileges required to ensure correct operation 1 2 Simplistically, a pair of base and limit registers • The concept of a logical address space that is bound to a separate physical address space is central to proper memory define the logical address space management – Logical address – generated by the CPU; also referred to as virtual address – Physical address – address seen by the memory unit • Memory-Management Unit (MMU) is the hardware device that maps virtual to physical address • Logical and physical addresses are the same in compile-time address-binding schemes; logical (virtual) and physical addresses differ in execution-time address-binding scheme. The user program deals with logical addresses - it never sees the real physical addresses 3 4 Address binding of instructions and data to memory • Routine is not loaded until it is called. addresses can happen at two different stages • Better memory-space utilization; unused routine is – Compile time : If memory location known a priori, never loaded. absolute code can be generated; must recompile • Useful when large amounts of code are needed to code if starting location changes handle infrequently occurring cases – Execution time : Binding delayed until run time if • No special support from the operating system is the process can be moved during its execution from required, implemented through program design. one memory segment to another. Needs hardware support for address maps. 5 6 1 �
• Main memory usually divided into two partitions: – Resident operating system, usually held in low memory. – User processes then held in high memory. • Relocation registers used to protect user processes from each other, and from changing operating-system code and data. – Base register contains value of smallest physical address – Limit register contains range of logical addresses – each logical address must be less than the limit register. – MMU maps logical address dynamically. 7 8 Multiple-partition allocation Logical + – Hole – block of available memory; holes of various size are relocation scattered throughout memory – When a process arrives, it is allocated memory from a hole large enough to accommodate it – Operating system maintains information about: a) allocated partitions b) free partitions (hole) OS � OS � OS � OS � process 5 � process 5 � process 5 � process 5 � process 9 � process 9 � process 8 � process 10 � process 2 � process 2 � process 2 � process 2 � 9 10 How to satisfy a request of size n from a list of free holes • External Fragmentation – total memory space exists to satisfy a request, but it is not contiguous • First-fit : Allocate the first hole that is big enough • Internal Fragmentation – allocated memory may be • Next -fit : Like first fit, but allocate the first hole from slightly larger than requested memory; this size difference last allocation that is big enough is memory internal to a partition, but not being used • Best-fit : Allocate the smallest hole that is big enough; • Reduce external fragmentation by compaction must search entire list – Produces the smallest leftover hole – Shuffle memory contents to place all free memory together in one large block • Worst-fit : Allocate the largest hole; must also search entire list – Compaction is possible only if relocation is – Produces the largest leftover hole dynamic, and is done at execution time 11 12 2 �
• Memory-management scheme that supports user view of memory • A program is a collection of segments. A segment is a logical unit such as: main program, procedure, function, method, object, local variables, global variables, common block, stack, symbol table, arrays 13 14 • Logical address consists of a two tuple: 1 � <segment-number, offset> 4 � • Segment table – maps two-dimensional physical 1 � addresses; each table entry has: 2 � – base – contains the starting physical address where the segments reside in memory 3 � 2 � – limit – specifies the length of the segment 4 � • Segment-table base register (STBR) points to the 3 � segment table’s location in memory • Segment-table length register (STLR) indicates user space � physical memory space � number of segments used by a program; segment number s is legal if s < STLR 15 16 • Protection – With each entry in segment table associate: • validation bit = 0 ⇒ illegal segment • read/write/execute privileges • Protection bits associated with segments; code sharing occurs at segment level. • Since segments vary in length, memory allocation is a dynamic storage-allocation problem. 17 18 3 �
• Logical address space of process can be noncontiguous; process is allocated physical memory whenever the latter is available. • Divide physical memory into fixed-sized blocks called frames (size is power of 2). • Divide logical memory into blocks of same size called pages. • Keep track of all free frames. • To run a program of size n pages, need to find n free frames and load program. • Set up a page table to translate logical to physical addresses. • Internal fragmentation. 19 20 Address generated by CPU is divided into: • Page number ( p ) – used as an index into a page table which contains base address of each page in physical memory • Page offset (d) – combined with base address to define the physical memory address that is sent to the memory unit page number � page offset � p � d � m - n � n � • For given logical address space of size 2 m and page size is 2 n 21 22 • Shared code – One copy of read-only (reentrant) code shared among processes (i.e., text editors, compilers, window systems). – Each page table maps onto the same physical copy of the shared code. • Private code and data – Each process keeps a separate copy of the code and data. 23 24 4 �
32-byte memory and 4-byte pages � 25 Before allocation � After allocation � 26 • Thrashing may be caused by programs or workloads that present insufficient locality of reference To check if a page is a valid memory address we have a Valid-invalid bit attached to each entry in the page table: • If the working set of a program or a workload cannot – “valid” indicates that the associated page is in the be effectively held within physical memory, then process’ logical address space, and is thus a legal page. constant data swapping, i.e., thrashing, may occur – “invalid” indicates that the page is not mapped at this time. 27 28 • A process can be swapped temporarily out of memory to a • To resolve thrashing due to excessive paging, a user can backing store, and then brought back into memory for do any of the following. continued execution – Increase the amount of RAM in the computer • Backing store – disk large enough to accommodate (generally the best long-term solution). copies of all memory images for all users; – Decrease the number of programs being run on the • Roll out, roll in – swapping variant used for priority-based computer. scheduling algorithms; lower-priority process is swapped out so higher-priority process can be loaded and executed – Replace programs that are memory-heavy with equivalents that use less memory. • System maintains a ready queue of ready-to-run processes which have memory images on disk 29 30 5 �
• Page table is kept in main memory • Page-table base register (PTBR) points to the page table • Page-table length register (PRLR) indicates size of the page table • In this scheme every data/instruction access requires two memory accesses. One for the page table and one for the data/instruction. • The two memory access problem can be solved by the use of a special fast-lookup hardware cache called associative memory or translation look-aside buffers (TLBs) • Some TLBs store address-space identifiers (ASIDs) in each TLB entry – uniquely identifies each process to provide address-space protection for that process 31 32 • As the number of processes increases, the percentage of memory devoted to page tables also increases. • The following structures solved this problem: – Hierarchical Paging – Hashed Page Tables – Inverted Page Tables 33 34 • Break up the logical address space into multiple page tables. • A simple technique is a two-level page table (the page table is paged). 35 36 6 �
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