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The Early Israelite Monarchy in Text and Archaeology

The Days of David and Solomon

• Dr. Kyle Keimer

Macquarie University

The Early Israelite Monarchy in Text and Archaeology

Introduction The United Monarchy in Text The United Monarchy in Archaeology Methodological Considerations Integrating the Text and Archaeology: Jerusalem as a Case Study Conclusions The Days of David and Solomon

The United Monarchy in Text

• 1 Samuel 8 - 2 Samuel 24
• 1 Kings 1 - 1 Kings 12
• 1 Chronicles 10 - 2 Chronicles 9

The Early Israelite Monarchy in Text and Archaeology

The Days of David and Solomon

Authorship: Date of Writing: Historical Date: ?

10-6th c BC?

? ?

4th c BC? Ca.1040-970 BC Ca.970-930 BC Ca.1040-930 BC 10-6th c BC?

The Early Israelite Monarchy in Text and Archaeology

The United Monarchy in Text

1 Sam 8 A Call for a Monarchy 1 Sam 9 - 1 Sam 31 the Reign of Saul 2 Sam 1 - 1 Kgs 2:11 the Reign of David 1 Kgs 2:12 - 11:43 the Reign of Solomon 1 Kgs 12 Collapse of the United Monarchy

The Early Israelite Monarchy in Text and Archaeology

The United Monarchy in Text - the Reign of David

2 Samuel 1 – 1Kings 2:11

• Conquers J erusalem (1000 BC) [2 S am. 5:6-10]
• David builds palace in J erusalem [5:11–12]

– Hiram of Tyre supplies David with timber and craftsmen

• Wars against the Philistines [5:17–25; 8:1]
• Creates territorial state; defeats…

– Moabites [8:2] – Arameans of Zobah led by Hadadezer [8:3f.] – Arameans of Damascus [8:5–8] – Hamath pays tribute [8:9f.] – Edomites [8:13f.] – Ammonites [10:1–14; 11:1] – Amalekites [8:12]

• Attempted coup d’etat by Absalom [16:15–18:18]
• More wars against Philistines [21:15–22]

The Early Israelite Monarchy in Text and Archaeology

The United Monarchy in Text - the Reign of Solomon

I Kings 2:12–11:43

• Marries pharaoh’s daughter (= treaty)
• Receives Gezer as dowry of Pharaoh’s daughter
• Administration and taxation
• Establishes 12 administrative districts (minus J udah)
• Taxes in kind; cf. lines of tribal divisions
• Neighboring states pay tribute
• Enters into trade and treaty relations with Hiram of Tyre
• Cedar and craftsmen from Lebanon to Israel
• Wheat, oil, and conscripted laborers from Israel to Lebanon
• Maritime venture with Hiram of Tyre
• Bestows 20 towns in Galilee to Hiram of Tyre
• Builder:
• Temple (967–960) and Palace (960–947) in J erusalem
• Builds and fortifies settlements
• Acquires chariots, horses, and resources

Textual Reasons for Disputes about the UM

• 1. Lack of chronological anchors in the biblical material
• 2. Debate over numbers: symbolic or literal?
• 3. Understanding of the semantic range of words for

political and social structures

• 4. Uncertainty of the authorship and date of composition of

the biblical texts

• 5. Uncertainty of the historicity of the biblical portrayal of

the United Monarchy: Ideal vs. Real

Did I actually exist? If so, was I as great as everyone says?

The United Monarchy in Archaeology

• Bible and Archaeology
• Low Chronology
• Modified Conventional Chronology

The Early Israelite Monarchy in Text and Archaeology

The Days of David and Solomon

Iron Age I Iron Age IIA 1200-1000 BC 1000-925 BC

• ca. 1130-930
• ca. 930-830/800
• ca. 980-830
• ca. 1180-980

The United Monarchy in Archaeology

The Early Israelite Monarchy in Text and Archaeology

The Days of David and Solomon

Traditional : 1000-925 BC Aharoni and Amiran : 1000-840 BC NEAEHL : 1000-900 BC Barkay : 1000-800 BC Modified Conventional Chronology : ca. 980 - ca. 840/30 BC Low Chronology : ca. 925-905 - 845/800 BC Herzog and Singer-Avitz (2004 & 2006) : Early Iron IIa (950-900/880 BC) and Late Iron IIa (900/880-800 BC)

Based on Biblical Text: Period of the United Monarchy End date based on changes in ceramic forms, particularly cooking pots Compromised date based on various views of ceramic changes Based on changes in the material culture, particularly ceramics Based on changes in the material culture, particularly ceramics* Based on ambiguous ancient sources and comparison of relative strata* Based on changes in the ceramics

Archaeological Reasons for Disputes about the UM

Did I actually exist? If so, was I as great as everyone says?

• 1. Lack of chronological anchors in the archaeological

material

• 2. Debate over which historical events created chronological

anchors in the archaeological material

• 3. Understanding of political and social structures (including

the nature of both the governing authority and how power is rationalized)

• 4. Gradual and regional change in ceramics
• 5. Uncertainty of correlating specific structures to specific

biblical kings

• 6. Flattened Radiocarbon curve

Methodological Considerations

• Modern Interpretive Bias (with Texts and Archaeology)
• Understanding Ancient Socio-Political Structures
• Understanding Ancient Economies
• Understanding Spatial Realities

The Early Israelite Monarchy in Text and Archaeology

The Days of David and Solomon

Territoriality and Borders One Economy or Many? Capitalist or not? Bureaucratic vs. Patrimonial Evolutionary/Linear/Functionalist/etc.

Understanding Ancient Socio-Political Structures

The Early Israelite Monarchy in Text and Archaeology

The Days of David and Solomon - Methodological Considerations

Band Tribe Chiefdom State “Primitive” “Civilized”

Evolutionary Approach Multilineal Approach

Tribe Band Chiefdom State

Key considerations: rationalization, environment, religion, ideology

The Early Israelite Monarchy in Text and Archaeology

Rationalization of Power (according to Weber)

Charismatic: “resting on devotion to the exceptional sanctity, heroism or exemplary character of an individual person, and of the normative patterns

• r order revealed or ordained by him.”

Traditional: “resting on an established belief in the sanctity of immemorial traditions and the legitimacy of those exercising authority under them.” Legal-Rational: “resting on an established belief in the legality of enacted rules and the right of those elevated to authority under such rules to issue commands.”

Understanding Ancient Socio-Political Structures The Days of David and Solomon - Methodological Considerations

The United Israelite Monarchy is characterized by Charismatic and Traditional rationalizations of power

How is this reflected in the archaeology?

The Early Israelite Monarchy in Text and Archaeology

Understanding Ancient Socio-Political Structures The Days of David and Solomon - Methodological Considerations

Rationalization of power is NOT a guaranteed indicator of social structure, and vice versa

Tribal societies can have monarchs. States can be tribal in nature The key is the nested concept of society

The Early Israelite Monarchy in Text and Archaeology

Understanding Ancient Socio-Political Structures The Days of David and Solomon - Methodological Considerations

Israel (= Nation) Ephraim Manasseh Benjamin Dan Asher Naphtali Issachar (= Tribe) Zebulun Judah Simeon Reuben Gad Levi Clan Clan Clan Clan Clan Household Household Household Household Household

• Heb. shebet/mateah
• Heb. mishpacha
• Heb. bet ’ab

See, for example, Numbers 1 and 26

• Heb. beney Israel

The Early Israelite Monarchy in Text and Archaeology

Understanding Ancient Socio-Political Structures The Days of David and Solomon - Methodological Considerations

• Heb. bet ’ab (House of the Father)

Father Wife Son 1 Son 2 Grandson Servants Grandson King Israelites Non-Israelites God King Son 1 Son 1 Son 1 Official 1 Son 2 Son 1 O1 O2

Earlier Later (Patrimonial Bureaucracy)

Patrimonialism is Common Throughout the ANE from at least the 3rd Millennium BC

The Early Israelite Monarchy in Text and Archaeology

Understanding Ancient Socio-Political Structures The Days of David and Solomon - Methodological Considerations

What was the nature of the Early Israelite Monarchy?

Bureaucratic Patrimonial

Writing is Necessary Public vs. Private Socio-Political Complexity = Complex Material Culture Authority is Legal-Rational Centralized Authority Writing is Optional No Concept of the Private Socio-Political Complexity may/may not = Complex Material Culture Authority is Charismatic/Traditional De-centralized or Tiered Authority

The Early Israelite Monarchy in Text and Archaeology

Integrating the Text and Archaeology: Jerusalem as a Case Study The Days of David and Solomon

• The Political Advantages of J erusalem

– Central location

• How to unite tribes under one capital?

–Neutral location

• How to rally tribes around a capital with no previous nationalistic sentiments?

– Closer to Benjamin

• How to protect main route to the central hills?

Jerusalem Hebron

Siloam Pool Gihon Spring “Warren’s Shaft” Siloam Channel

David’s Conquest of Jerusalem

(ca. 1000 BC)

– 2 S am 5-6 Conquest of J ebus – What is the “tzinnor”? – Renames Jebus the “City of David”

“Millo”

Western Hill City of David Fortress

• f Zion?

Temple

Ophel

11th-10th Century Jerusalem

Was Jerusalem a major city? What is required for a capital?

Ophel Temple Mount

Solomon’s Palace Solomon’s Temple

Solomon’s Palace

• Palace of the Forest of Lebanon (1 Kings 7:1–12)
• 13 years to build
• Multiple buildings with residence and “Hall of Justice”
• Phoenician craftsmen
• Cedar beams
• Immense masonry

Ophel Gate

David’s Palace Above the “Millo”

Temple Mount and City of David aerial from east

Temple Mount and City of David aerial from east

Jerusalem Pithos Inscription

Southern Temple Mount/Ophel excavations from east

N

Southern Temple Mount/Ophel Excavations aerial from southwest

N

Solomon built...the house of the LORD and his own house, the Millo and the wall of Jerusalem

1 Kgs 9:15

The Early Israelite Monarchy in Text and Archaeology

Conclusions The Days of David and Solomon

1. Use an appropriate theory for understanding the ancient Near East and ancient Israel in particular. Understand the context.

• 2. Match our expectations to our theory
• 3. A reading of the biblical texts must be attuned to a given text’s genre, our

hermeneutics, and the available comparative ancient literature

• 4. Interpretation of the archaeological remains requires a theoretically informed

hermeneutic so the best model of ancient society can be allowed to speak for itself (as much as possible)

• 5. When points 1-4 are considered, many disparities noted by biblical scholars and

archaeologists become resolvable

• 6. When points 1-4 are considered, a literarily viable, historically reliable, and

archaeologically verifiable portrait of the United Monarchy is possible.