❍♦✇ ✭◆♦t✮ t♦ ❙❝❤❡❞✉❧❡ ❛ ❈♦♥❢❡r❡♥❝❡ ❏❛❝♦❜ ●♦❡r❡❡✱ ▲✉❦❡ ▲✐♥❞s❛②✱ ❏✐♥❣❥✐♥❣ ❩❤❛♥❣ ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t② ♦❢ ❩✉r✐❝❤ ❏✉❧② ✷✵✶✸
❖✉t❧✐♥❡ ❉❡♠♦❣r❛♣❤✐❝s ❚❛❦✐♥❣ ❆❝❝♦✉♥t ♦❢ P❛rt✐❝✐♣❛♥ts✬ Pr❡❢❡r❡♥❝❡s ❈♦♥❝❧✉❞✐♥❣ ❘❡♠❛r❦s
❉❡♠♦❣r❛♣❤✐❝s ❋❡♠❛❧❡ ✸✵✳✹✪ ▼❛❧❡ ✻✾✳✻✪
✷✻ ❈♦✉♥tr✐❡s ●❡r♠❛♥② ✾✼ ❆✉str✐❛ ✺ ❯♥✐t❡❞ ❙t❛t❡s ✺✽ ❏❛♣❛♥ ✺ ❙✇✐t③❡r❧❛♥❞ ✸✸ ❙✇❡❞❡♥ ✸ ❯♥✐t❡❞ ❑✐♥❣❞♦♠ ✷✾ ●✉❛t❡♠❛❧❛ ✷ ◆❡t❤❡r❧❛♥❞s ✷✻ ◆♦r✇❛② ✷ ■t❛❧② ✶✼ ❙♦✉t❤ ❆❢r✐❝❛ ✷ ❋r❛♥❝❡ ✶✻ ❚✉♥✐s✐❛ ✷ ❆✉str❛❧✐❛ ✶✷ ❇❡❧❣✐✉♠ ✶ ❈❤✐♥❛ ✶✶ ❇r❛③✐❧ ✶ ❙♣❛✐♥ ✶✵ ▼❡①✐❝♦ ✶ ■sr❛❡❧ ✼ ◆❡✇ ❩❡❛❧❛♥❞ ✶ ❈③❡❝❤ ❘❡♣✉❜❧✐❝ ✻ P♦❧❛♥❞ ✶ ❙✐♥❣❛♣♦r❡ ✻ ❚❛✐✇❛♥ ✶
❘❡❣✐♦♥s ❊✉r♦♣❡ ✷✹✻ ✻✾✳✸✪ ◆♦rt❤ ❆♠❡r✐❝❛ ✺✾ ✶✻✳✻✷✪ ❆s✐❛ ✷✸ ✻✳✹✽✪ ❆✉str❛❧✐❛ ❛♥❞ ❖❝❡❛♥✐❛ ✶✸ ✸✳✻✻✪ ▼✐❞❞❧❡ ❊❛st✱ ◆♦rt❤ ❆❢r✐❝❛✱ ❛♥❞ ●r❡❛t❡r ✾ ✷✳✺✹✪ ❈❡♥tr❛❧ ❆♠❡r✐❝❛ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❈❛r✐❜❜❡❛♥ ✷ ✵✳✺✻✪ ❙✉❜✲❙❛❤❛r❛♥ ❆❢r✐❝❛ ✷ ✵✳✺✻✪ ❙♦✉t❤ ❆♠❡r✐❝❛ ✶ ✵✳✷✽✪
P❤❉ ❍❛s P❤❉ ★ P❡r❝❡♥t ◆♦ ✽✵ ✸✻✳✺✸ ❨❡s ✶✸✾ ✻✸✳✹✼
❙t❛❣❡ ✐♥ P❤❉ 25 20 Frequency 15 10 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 Year in PhD Program
❙t❛❣❡ ✐♥ ❈❛r❡❡r 60 40 Frequency 20 0 0 10 20 30 Years since PhD
▼♦t✐✈❛t✐♦♥ ◮ ✸✷✻ t❛❧❦s ✐♥ ✸✻ t✐♠❡ s❧♦ts ✲❃ ❛t ♠♦st ❝❛♥ ❛tt❡♥❞ ✶✶✪ ♦❢ t❛❧❦s ◮ ♣❧❛✉s✐❜❧❡ ❛❞❞✐t✐♦♥❛❧ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ ❤❛✈✐♥❣ r❡❧❛t❡❞ t❛❧❦s ✐♥ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ s❡ss✐♦♥ ◮ ♣❛rt✐❝✐♣❛♥ts ❦♥♦✇ ❜❡tt❡r t❤❛♥ ♦r❣❛♥✐③❡rs ❤♦✇ t❤❡✐r t❛❧❦ r❡❧❛t❡s t♦ ♦t❤❡r t❛❧❦s ◮ ♦r❣❛♥✐③❡rs ❞♦ ♥♦t ❦♥♦✇ ♣❛rt✐❝✐♣❛♥ts✬ ♣r❡❢❡r❡♥❝❡s
❖✈❡r✈✐❡✇ ♦❢ Pr♦❝❡❞✉r❡ ✶✳ P❛rt✐❝✐♣❛♥ts s✉❜♠✐t ❛❜str❛❝ts ❛♥❞ s♣❡❝✐❢② ✷ t♦♣✐❝s ❢♦r t❤❡✐r t❛❧❦✳ ✷✳ ❖r❣❛♥✐③❡rs ♠❛♥✉❛❧❧② ❛ss✐❣♥ t❛❧❦s t♦ str❡❛♠s ♦❢ ✶✷✲✷✽ t❛❧❦s ✸✳ P❛rt✐❝✐♣❛♥ts ❜✐❞ ✉s✐♥❣ ♠♦♥❡② ❛♥❞ t♦❦❡♥s ✸✳✶ ❲❤♦ t❤❡② ✇♦✉❧❞ ❧✐❦❡ ✐♥ t❤❡✐r s❡ss✐♦♥ ✸✳✷ ❲❤✐❝❤ t❛❧❦s t❤❡② ✇♦✉❧❞ ❧✐❦❡ t♦ ❛tt❡♥❞ ✹✳ ❖r❣❛♥✐③❡rs ❝♦♥str✉❝t t✇♦ ❝♦♥❢❡r❡♥❝❡ ♣r♦❣r❛♠s ❜❛s❡❞ ♦♥ ❜✐❞s ✺✳ P❛rt✐❝✐♣❛♥ts ✈♦t❡ t♦ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❡ ✇❤✐❝❤ ♣r♦❣r❛♠ ✐s ✐♠♣❧❡♠❡♥t❡❞
❆❧❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ t♦ ❙tr❡❛♠s ❆♣♣❧✐❡❞ ❊❝♦♥♦♠✐❝s ✭✷✵✮ ❆✉❝t✐♦♥s ❛♥❞ ▼❛r❦❡t ❉❡s✐❣♥ ✭✷✻✮ ❈♦♥t❡sts ✭✷✵✮ ❉❡❝✐s✐♦♥ ❚❤❡♦r② ✭✷✹✮ ❋✐❡❧❞ ❊①♣❡r✐♠❡♥ts ✭✶✻✮ ●❛♠❡s ✭✷✸✮ ●r♦✉♣ ❇❡❤❛✈✐♦r ✭✶✾✮ ▲❛❜♦r ▼❛r❦❡t ✭✶✾✮ ▼❛r❦❡ts ✭✷✽✮ ▼❡t❤♦❞♦❧♦❣② ✭✶✷✮ ◆♦r♠s ❛♥❞ ❊t❤✐❝s ✭✷✷✮ Ps②❝❤♦❧♦❣② ❛♥❞ ❇✐♦❧♦❣② ✭✶✷✮ P✉❜❧✐❝ ❈❤♦✐❝❡ ✭✷✹✮ ❘❡♣❡❛t❡❞ ●❛♠❡s ✭✶✺✮ ❘✐s❦ ❛♥❞ ❆♠❜✐❣✉✐t② ✭✷✹✮ ❙♦❝✐❛❧ ❇❡❤❛✈✐♦r ✭✷✹✮
❆ss✐❣♥✐♥❣ ❚❛❧❦s t♦ ❙❡ss✐♦♥s ◮ ▲❡t ❜ ✐❥ ❞❡♥♦t❡ ✐ ✬s ❜✐❞ ❢♦r ❜❡✐♥❣ ✐♥ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ s❡ss✐♦♥ ❛s ❥ ✳ ◮ ▲❡t ① ✐❥ = ✶ ✐❢ ♣r❡s❡♥t❡r ✐ ✐s ✐♥ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ s❡ss✐♦♥ ❛s ❥ ❛♥❞ ① ✐❥ = ✵ ♦t❤❡r✇✐s❡✳ ◮ ❛r❣♠❛① ∑ ✐ ∑ ❥ ① ✐❥ ❜ ✐✈ ① ❙✉❜❥❡❝t t♦ ◮ ❊❛❝❤ ♣r❡s❡♥t❡r ♣r❡s❡♥ts ♦♥❝❡ ◮ ✹ t❛❧❦s ✐♥ ❡❛❝❤ s❡ss✐♦♥
❆ss✐❣♥✐♥❣ ❙❡ss✐♦♥s t♦ ❚✐♠❡✲s❧♦ts ◮ ▲❡t ❙ ❞❡♥♦t❡ t❤❡ s❡t ♦❢ ❛❧❧ s❡ss✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ P ❞❡♥♦t❡ ❛ ♣❛rt✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❙ ✳ ◮ ❆t t✐♠❡ t ✱ ♣❡rs♦♥ ✐ ✇✐❧❧ ❛tt❡♥❞ t❤❡ s❡ss✐♦♥ t❤❡② ✈❛❧✉❡ ♠♦st ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ s❡t ♦❢ s❡ss✐♦♥s ❛✈❛✐❧❛❜❧❡ ❇ ∈ P ✳ ◮ ❉❡♥♦t❡ t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ ✐ ✬s ❜❡st s❡ss✐♦♥ ✐♥ ❇ ❛s ✈ ✐ ( ❇ ) ✳ ◮ ❛r❣♠❛① ∑ ❇ ∈ P ∑ ✐ ✈ ✐ ( ❇ ) P ❙✉❜❥❡❝t t♦ ◮ ❛ | P | ≤ ♥❚✐♠❡❙❧♦ts ◮ ❋♦r ❛❧❧ ❇ ∈ P , | ❇ | ≤ ♥❘♦♦♠s ◮ ❙❡ss✐♦♥s ❢r♦♠ s❛♠❡ str❡❛♠ ❞♦ ♥♦t ❝❧❛s❤✳
❈♦♠♣❛r✐♥❣ ❚♦❦❡♥s ✫ ▼♦♥❡② ◮ ❇♦t❤ ✉s❡ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ♦♣t✐♠✐③❛t✐♦♥ ♣r♦❝❡❞✉r❡✳ ◮ ❲✐t❤ t♦❦❡♥s✱ t❤❡ ♣r♦❝❡❞✉r❡ ✐s r✉♥ ❛♥❞ t❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ ♥♦ tr❛♥s❢❡rs✳ ◮ ❲✐t❤ ♠♦♥❡②✱ t❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ tr❛♥s❢❡rs✳
❚r❛♥s❢❡rs ✐♥ t❤❡ ▼♦♥❡② ▼❡❝❤❛♥✐s♠ ◮ ❆ ❱✐❝❦r❡②✕❈❧❛r❦❡✕●r♦✈❡s ❧✐❦❡ ♠❡❝❤❛♥✐s♠ ✐s ✉s❡❞ t♦ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❡ ♣❛②♠❡♥ts✳ ◮ ▲❡t ♣❡rs♦♥ ✐ ✬s ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ ♣r♦❣r❛♠ ❛ ∈ ❆ ❜❡ ❞❡♥♦t❡❞ ✈ ✐ ( ❛ ) . ◮ ▲❡t ❛ ∗ = ❛r❣♠❛① ∑ ✐ ✈ ✐ ( ❛ ) ❛ ∈ ❆ � � − ∑ ❥ � = ✐ ✈ ❥ ( ❛ ∗ ) ◮ P❡rs♦♥ ✐ ✬s ♣❛②♠❡♥t ♣ ✐ = ♠❛① ❛ ∈ ❆ ∑ ❥ � = ✐ ✈ ❥ ( ❛ ) ◮ P❡rs♦♥ ✐ ✬s r❡❢✉♥❞ r ✐ = ∑ ❥ � = ■ ♣ ❥ ♥ − ✶
❇✐❞❞✐♥❣ ❚♦❦❡♥s ▼♦♥❡② s❡ss✐♦♥ ❛tt❡♥❞ s❡ss✐♦♥ ❛tt❡♥❞ ★ ❜✐❞❞❡rs ✷✶✺ ✽✺ ★ ❜✐❞❞❡rs ✶✽✷ ✶✼✼ ✻✾ ✼✷ ♠❡❛♥ ✽✳✾✽ ✸✳✸✼ ✷✳✵✼ ✸✳✺✸ ♠❛① ✺✵ ✺✵ ✷✵ ✸✵ ❜✐❞s ♣❡r ❜✐❞❞❡r ✷✳✻✷ ✼✳✸✼ ✻✳✻✾ ✷✳✹✹ s✉♠ ❜✐❞ ♣❡r ❜✐❞❞❡r ✷✸✳✺✷ ✷✹✳✽✹ ✶✸✳✽✺ ✽✳✺✾
❱♦t✐♥❣ ❚♦❦❡♥s ▼♦♥❡② ❇❡❢♦r❡ s❡❡✐♥❣ ♣r♦❣r❛♠s ✷✸✺ ✭✽✻✳✼✷✪✮ ✸✻ ✭✶✸✳✷✽✪✮ ❆❢t❡r s❡❡✐♥❣ ♣r♦❣r❛♠s ✶✺✾ ✭✻✹✳✾✪✮ ✽✻ ✭✸✺✳✶✪✮
❈♦♥❝❧✉❞✐♥❣ ❘❡♠❛r❦s ◮ P❡♦♣❧❡ ❝❛r❡ ❛❜♦✉t ✇❤♦ ✐s ✐♥ t❤❡✐r s❡ss✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ✇❤✐❝❤ t❛❧❦s t❤❡② ❛r❡ ❛❜❧❡ t♦ ❛tt❡♥❞ ◮ ❆ ♠❛❥♦r✐t② ❜✉t ♥♦t ❡✈❡r②♦♥❡ s✉❜♠✐tt❡❞ ♣r❡❢❡r❡♥❝❡s✱ s✉❣❣❡st✐♥❣ ♣❛rt✐❝✐♣❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ❝♦st❧② ◮ ❙tr♦♥❣ ♣r❡❢❡r❡♥❝❡ ❢♦r t♦❦❡♥s r❛t❤❡r t❤❛♥ ♠♦♥❡② ◮ ❋♦r ❢✉t✉r❡ ◮ ✉s❡ t♦❦❡♥s ◮ ♠✐♥✐♠✐③❡ ♣❛rt✐❝✐♣❛t✐♦♥ ❝♦st ◮ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r ❛❧t❡r♥❛t✐✈❡s t♦ ♠❛♥✉❛❧ ❛❧❧♦❝❛t✐♦♥ t♦ str❡❛♠s ◮ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r ❡❧✐❝✐t✐♥❣ t✐♠❡ s❧♦t ♣r❡❢❡r❡♥❝❡s
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