Rarotongan Hawaiian Tongan Samoan tapu tapu tapu kapu 1 ‘forbidden’ pito pute pito piko 2 ‘navel’ puhi feula pu Ɂ i puhi 3 ‘blow’ tafa Ɂ aki tafa ta Ɂ a kaha 4 ‘side’ ta Ɂ e tae tae kae 5 ‘feces’ ta ŋ ata ta ŋ ata ta ŋ ata kanaka 6 ‘man’ tahi tai tai kai 7 ‘sea’ malohi malosi ka Ɂ a Ɂ aha 8 ‘strong’ kalo Ɂ alo karo Ɂ alo 9 ‘dodge’ 10 aka a Ɂ a aka a Ɂ a ‘root’ 11 Ɂ ahu au au au ‘gall’ 12 Ɂ ulu ulu uru po Ɂ o ‘head’ 13 Ɂ ufi ufi u Ɂ i uhi ‘yam’ 14 afi afi a Ɂ i ahi ‘fire’ 15 faa faa Ɂ aa haa ‘four’ 16 feke fe Ɂ e Ɂ eke he Ɂ e ‘octopus’ 17 ika i Ɂ a ika i Ɂ a ‘fish’ 18 ihu isu puta ŋ io ihu ‘nose’ 19 hau sau Ɂ au hau ‘dew’ 20 tafuafi si Ɂ a Ɂ ika hi Ɂ a ‘firemaking’ 21 hiku si Ɂ u Ɂ iku hi Ɂ u ‘tail’ 22 hake a Ɂ e ake a Ɂ e ‘up’ 23 huu ulu uru komo ‘enter’ 24 ma ŋ a ma ŋ a ma ŋ a mana ‘branch’ 25 ma Ɂ u mau mau mau ‘constant’ 26 maa mala mara mala ‘fermented’ 27 na Ɂ a fa Ɂ a ŋ a maninia naa ‘quieten’ 28 nofo nofo no Ɂ o noho ‘sit’ 29 ŋ alu ŋ alu ŋ aru nalu ‘wave’ 30 ŋ utu ŋ utu ŋ utu nuku ‘mouth’ 31 vaka va Ɂ a vaka wa Ɂ a ‘canoe’ 32 va Ɂ e vae vae wae ‘leg’ 33 laho laso ra Ɂ o laho ‘scrotum’ 34 lohu lou rou lou ‘fruit picking pole’ 35 o ŋ o lo ŋ o ro ŋ o lono ‘hear’ 36 ua lua rua lua ‘two’
Tongan t a p u Samoan t a p u Rarotongan t a p u Hawaiian t a p u comparative method 1 set aside obvious non-cognates (but how do you know this? … do next step in parallel) 2 look for sound correspondences ... watch for mergers/splits (non unitary correspondence) ... watch for mergers only at this point (assume no splits) Rarotongan Hawaiian Tongan Samoan t t t k a a a a p p p p u u u u Rarotongan Hawaiian Tongan Samoan a a a a e e e e i i i i o o o o u u u u p p p p Ɂ f f h t t t k Ɂ Ɂ k k Ɂ h s h m m m m n n n n ŋ ŋ ŋ n v v v w l l r l Ø l r l
Ɂ Tongan t a e Samoan t a e Rarotongan t a e Hawaiian t a e Rarotongan Hawaiian Tongan Samoan Ɂ Ø Ø Ø Ɂ Tongan a h u Samoan a u Rarotongan a u Hawaiian a u Rarotongan Hawaiian Tongan Samoan h Ø Ø Ø 3 Reconstruct phonemes, with these guidelines: i - plausibility reconstruct protoform so as to assume a plausible change to have occurred ii – minimize changes parsimony: use same proto form if all reflexes have same form) majority rules: if only one of many daughter languages has a different sound, consider that an innovation) iii – inventory balance try to create a balanced system for the proto language iv – concreteness do not propose a sound seen nowhere unless absolutely necessary Tongan Samoan Rarotongan Hawaiian PPN p p p p *p (minimization / parsimony) m m m m *m (minimization / parsimony) n n n n *n (minimization / parsimony) Rarotongan Hawaiian Tongan Samoan t t t k *t (minimization / majority rules) ŋ ŋ ŋ n * ŋ (minimization / majority rules)
Rarotongan Hawaiian Tongan Samoan Ɂ Ɂ k k *k (plausibility, balanced inventory) bilabial alveolar velar stop p t nasal m n ŋ Rarotongan Hawaiian Tongan Samoan Ɂ f f h *f (minimization / majority rules) Rarotongan Hawaiian Tongan Samoan l l r l *l (minimization / majority rules) Ø l r l *r (plausibility) Tongan Samoan Rarotongan Hawaiian Ɂ * Ɂ Ø Ø Ø (bec. assuming no splits) h Ø Ø Ø *h (bec. assuming no splits) Rarotongan Hawaiian Tongan Samoan Ɂ (* Ɂ and *h are already “taken”) h s h *s Inventory: Ɂ p t k m n ŋ f s h l r Rarotongan Hawaiian Tongan Samoan Ɂ * Ɂ h s h (*h is “taken”) h Ø Ø Ø *h (concreteness: avoid *x) Tongan Samoan Rarotongan Hawaiian v v v w *w (balance)
Summary Rarotongan Hawaiian Tongan Samoan p p p p *p Ɂ f f h *f t t t k *t Ɂ Ɂ k k *k Ɂ h s h *s Ɂ * Ɂ Ø Ø Ø h Ø Ø Ø *h m m m m *m n n n n *n ŋ ŋ ŋ n * ŋ v v v w *w l l r l *l Ø l r l *r 4 reconstruct protoforms
5 check for conditioned changes (splits) - look for similar correspondence sets - check for complementary distribution 37 fefine fafine ‘woman’ 38 fiefia fiafia ‘happy’ 39 mo Ɂ u ŋ a mau ŋ a ‘mountain’ 40 tuo ŋ a Ɂ ane tua ŋ ane ‘woman’s brother’ 41 tuofefine tuafefine ‘man’s sister’ Tongan Samoan * ɛ ? e a * ɔ ? o a *f ɛ fine *fi ɛ fia *m ɔɁ u ŋ a *tu ɔ ŋ a( Ɂ a )ne *tu ɔ f ɛ fine Tongan Samoan tapu tapu 1 ‘forbidden’ ta Ɂ e tae 5 ‘feces’ ta ŋ ata ta ŋ ata 6 ‘man’ tahi tai 7 ‘sea’ malohi malosi 8 ‘strong’ kalo Ɂ alo 9 ‘dodge’ 10 aka a Ɂ a ‘root’ 11 Ɂ ahu au ‘gall’ 14 afi afi ‘fire’
t ~ s in Sinaugoro, Motu (Data from Crowley 1997) t s t t Sinaugoro Motu 1. tama tama ‘father’ 2. tina sina ‘mother’ 3. ta ŋ i tai ‘cry’ 4. tui tui ‘elbow, knee’ ɣ ita 5. ita ‘see’ ɣ ate 6. ase ‘liver’ 7. mate mase ‘die’ 8. natu natu ‘child’ 9. toi toi ‘three’ Back to l and r in PPN Rarotongan Hawaiian Tongan Samoan l l r l *l (minimization / majority rules) Ø l r l *r (plausibility) kalo Ɂ alo karo Ɂ alo 9 ‘dodge’ 12 Ɂ ulu ulu uru ‘head’ 29 ŋ alu ŋ alu ŋ aru nalu ‘wave’ 33 laho laso ra Ɂ o laho ‘scrotum’ 34 lohu lou rou lou ‘fruit picking pole’ 23 huu ulu uru ‘enter’ 26 maa mala mara mala ‘fermented’ 35 o ŋ o lo ŋ o ro ŋ o lono ‘hear’ 36 ua lua rua lua ‘two’
Finnish Hungarian puu f ɔ 1. ‘tree’ pitæ- fy ː 2. ‘keep’ poika fiu ː 3. ‘boy’ pesæ fø ː 4. ‘nest’ puhu- fu ː (j)- 5. ‘blow’ purki forr 6. ‘snow flurry’ tuo- toj 7. ‘take’ tutka- tø ː (l)dj 8. ‘tip, point’ tunte- tud 9. ‘know’ tyvi tø ː 10. ‘base’ talvi te ː l 11. ‘winter’ kota ha ː z 12. ‘house, hut’ kuole- h ɔ l 13. ‘die’ kamara ha ː mlik 14. ‘skin’ kala h ɔ l 15. ‘fish’ koi h ɔ j 16. ‘dawn’ kolme ha ː rom 17. ‘three’ kalin ha ː lo ː 18. ‘net’ kusi hu ː dj 19. ‘urinate’ kivi kø ː 20. ‘stone’ keri ke ː reg 21. ‘bark’ kyynel kønnj 22. ‘tear’ kæte- ke ː z 23. ‘hand’ kii- ke ː j 24. ‘mating, pleasure’ pato f ɔ l 25. ‘wall’ ete- el 26. ‘before’ piti- fel 27. ‘long’ tæytæ- tel 28. ‘fill’ løytæ- lel 29. ‘find’ kuole- h ɔ l 30. ‘die’ nuoli nji ː l 31. ‘arrow’ kala h ɔ l 32. ‘fish’ liemi leve- 33. ‘broth’ lintu lu ː d 34. ‘bird, goose’
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